Transactions of the Edinburgh Naturalists' Field Club

'/^aHaaa,

^gyi '-^'^ ':'f;^-•^:■R^/^FA^>|^ ^"^^,

-. -^ /v '^

'i^f^mmrs

i A ^. ^ _ --N ^' ■

.\^Ar^r'^^'\r\r\'

] ^^ f^ r, r. r\ ,^ ^rif^

MeSSSi

mf\f\,

■l" a e._ f^

^^m^fMh^^'^

^^:%iv^A.^P

.^-^^^^^^

'^^'k'^^':.;^r^-^A'

ItOJmM

mmi

W hA^0Ai'3fe^;. A,

:b^^^^%^M

^^S^*'

R^A^^-

1

TEANSACTIONS

OF THE

tfbiiikrgl] i^atwralists' Jfiefo Clut

Soft shadows flit across the wintry sky,
And dawn is breaking thro' the mists of night,
As Spring returns, robed ia immortal light,

To bid the darkness and the tempest fly.

Sweet, o'er the meadows and the valleys, lie
A thousand smiles, to charm our longing sight,
As Hawthorn buds appear in virgin white,

And fields are clad in Primrose panoply.

Oh, woodlands fair ! oh, valleys decked with gold !

We fain would linger 'mong the blooming flowers.
Where myriad songsters on the branches sing,

And all their music, with its joy untold,
Now thriUs impassioned thro' the vernal bowers,

To welcome thee, oh, fair eternal Spring !

— Minnie M'Kean.

TEANSACTIONS

OF THE

^Miiburglj IliitEraiisb* Jficllr CIiil)

SESSIONS 1881-86

VOLUME I.

USRART
NEV/ YORK
BOTAr'x'lC/'k.L

GARDEN

^rintclj f0r tl^e Club bg

WILLIAM BLACKWOOD AND SONS

MDCCCLXXXVI

Mel. I

Z'

\

\

CONTENTS.

SESSION 1881-82.

PAGE

Introdtjctoky Note, 1

I. How we Spent the 30th July 1879 in the Wilds of Kilmonivaig

and North-west Badenoch. Mr S. Grieve, .... 3

II. Note on the Habits of the Spotted Flycatcher (Miiscicapa grisola).

Mr A. B. Herbert, 8

III. Bones and Shells taken from a Kitchen-midden on Inchkeith

during 1881. Mr T. B. Sprague, 12

IV. The probable Effects of a change of Elevation on the Flora of a

Country. Mr W. Tait Kinnbar, . .... 14

V. Notes of a Botanical Ramble in the Saentis district, Switzerland,

August 1881. Mr G. Bird, ....... 19

List of AnimaL Parasites shown by Mr J . Simpson, ... 23
VI., The Haunts and Habits of the Crossbill {Loxia curvirostra). Mr

A. Craio, jun., 24

VII. Note on the Wall-Creeper {Tichodroma Phcenicoptera) and a few
other Birds observed on a Visit to Switzerfand. Mr A. B.

Herbert, 30

VIII. Note on the Mouth-organs of Insects. The Secretary, . . 33

IX. Mimetic Plants. Mr J. Lindsay, 33

, X. Acotyledons, Monocotyledons, and Dicotyledons : their Morph-
ology and Physiology. Mr W. Lund IE, . . . . . 39
XI. Note on the Roosting of the Peregrine Falcon on the Spire of St

Mary's Cathedral, Edinburgh. Mr R. Stewart, S.S.C, . 44

i SESSION 1882-83.

I^ Notes on the Nomenclature of British Mosses. Mr J. Walcot, 45
II. On a Specimen of Gyracanthus obtained from the Carboniferous

Limestone series at Burgh Lee. .Mr T. Stock (CommMmicaietZ), 50

Annual Business Meeting, 52

III. Eestalrig Church : A Monograph. Mr T. A. Douglas Wood, . 53

IV. Some Notes on Remains of the Great Auk or Garefowl {Alca

inipennis, L. ) found in excavating an ancient Shell-Mound in
Oronsay. Mr S. Grieve, 58

V

VI

Contents.

V. On a Specimen of the Poisonous Lizard of Mexico [Heloderma

horrida, Weigmann). Mr R. J. Harvey Gibson, M.A., . 62

VI. Bees and Bee-Culture. Mr A. B. Herbert, .... 62
VII. List of a few Ferns and Fern Varieties collected chiefly in the
parish of Kilmalcolm, Renfrewshire, 1881-82. Mr Stewart

Archibald, 78

VIII. Note on the continued Flowering of the Male Flowers of Ana-

charis alsinastrum. Mr W. Tait Kinnear, .... 81
IX. The Haining, Selkirk : with Notices of its Antiquities, Top-
ography, and Natural History. Mr J. Lindsay, . . . 82
X. Pitlochry and its Bird-Life. Mr A. Craig, jun., ... 87
XI. The Pentland Skerries. Mr T. M. Cruickshank, . . . - 97
XII. An April Trip to South Ronaldshay. Mr R. Thomson, LL.B., 97

XIII. A Gossip about Pets. Mr R. Stewart, S.S.C, .... 97

XIV. Shap Spa and its Surroundings. Mr J. Walcot, . . .104
XV. Specimens of Lizards from S. America. Mr P. B. Gibb, M.A., . 107

XVI. A Day's Ramble in the Northern Part of the Island of Arran.

Mr W. L MacAdam, F.C.S., F.I.C., 107

XVII. On the Cathcart Ether Freezing Microtome. Mr Alex. Frazer,

M.A., 112

XVIII. Notes on Spring Vegetation as observed at Morningside. Mr G.

L. Brown, 114

XIX. Geological Notes on a few of the Excursions. Miss Craigie, . 115

Obituary Notice, 118

SESSION 1883-84.

I. The Hirundines. Mr A. B. Herbert, 119

II. Note on a Rabbit killed by a Weasel. Mr R. Stewart, S.S.C, 127

III. A New Method of taking Impressions of Leaves. Mr J. Turn-

bull (Communicated), . 129

IV. The Stoat or Ermine Weasel {Mustela erminea). Mr R. Scot

Skirting, 130

V. Concerning Lycopods and Selaginellas : Past and Present. Mr

J. Lindsay, 136

VI. The Sylviidse or Warblers. Mr A. Craig, jun., . . . 143

VII. On the Structure and Pollination of the Flower of Calathea

zebrina. J. M. Macfarlane, D.Sc. 150

VIII. Note on the Mounting of Microscopic Objects in Monobromide of

Naphthaline. Mr W. L MagAdam, F.C.S., F.LC, . . 151
IX. The Structure and Habits of Carnivorous Plants. ' Mr A. D.

Richardson, 151

X. Note on the Nest of the Reed- Warbler {Salicaria aruiidinacea).

Mr A. B. Herbert, 162

XI. Some American Plants worth Notice. Mr M. King, . . .163
XII. Note on the Westward Migration of the Flora and Reptilian
Fauna of the European Continent, as evidenced on the Main-
land of Scotland, &c. Mr S. Grieve, 166

XIII. Animal and Vegetable Symbiosis or Consortism. Mr J. Rattray,

M.A., B.Sc, . . 172

Contents.

vn

XIV. The Nuthatch {Sitta cioropcca), Mr A. B. Herbert,
Meetings of Microscopic Section,
Annual Business Meeting,

184
186
187

SESSION 1884-85.

I. Field-Naturalists. Mr A. B. Herbert, President, . . .189
II. Note ou the Distribution of Honey-Glands in Pitchered Insectiv-
orous Plants. Mr J. Lindsay, 200

III. Note on the Appearance of the Saury Pike in the Forth. Mr A.

B. Herbert, President, 202

IV. The Commoner Buntings {Emherizidw). Mr A. Craig, jun., . 202
V. The Hymenomycetes. Mr A. B. Steele, 211

VI. On Yews, with special Reference to the Fortingall Yew. Mr J.

Lindsay 218

VII. Who were the early Inhabitants of the Shell-mound named

Caisteal-nan-Gillean, on Oronsay ? Mr S. Grieve, . . 227
VIII. Sketch of the Geology of the Pentlands. Mr J. Henderson, . 234

IX. Diatoms. Mr J. Rattray, M.A., B.Sc 238

X, Note on the Genus Lamium. Mr M. King, .... 250
XI. List of the Less Common Plants gathered at the Excursions

during 1884, with Localities, The Secretary, . . . 254
XII. Note on the Squirrel (Sciurus europceus). Mr J. Thomson {Com-

rmcnicatcd), .......... 257

Meetings of Microscopic Section, — 260

Improved Forms of Ether and Imbedding Microtomes. Mr Alex.

Frazer, M.A. (luith Illustrations).
Photo-Micrography. Mr Wm. Forgan.

Annual Business Meeting, 265

SESSION 1885-86.

I.

IL

III.
IV.

V.

VI.

VII.

VIIL

IX.

X.
XL

Opening Addi-ess. Mr S. Grieve, President, ...
The Organic Causes of the Coloration of Water, &c. Mr J

Rattray, M.A., B.Sc,

The Red Deer (Cervus elaijhus). Mr S. Grieve, President,
On the Structure and Pollination of the Flowers of Sarracenia

J. M. Macfarlane, D.Sc, F.R.S.E., ....
The Rarer Birds of Stobo. Mr J. Thomson {Communicated),
The Fungus Foray in Roslin Glen. Mr A. B. Steele,
Discovery of the Water - Spider {Argyroneta aquatica) near

Balerno. Mr A. B. Herbert,

List of the Less Common Plants gathered at the Excursions

during 1885, with Localities. The Secretary,
On the Objects and Methods of Meteorology. Mr Alex. Frazer

M.A.,

Veronicas in the Neighbourhood of Edinburgh. Mr M. King,

The Ring and Water Ousels ;
Craig, jun., .

their Homes and Habits. Mr A

269

273

278

286
288
294

297

298

299
300

304

viii Contents.

XII. Notes on Marine Excursions —

I. Granton. Mr J. Lindsay, ' . 312

II. Joppa. Mr J. Allan, . . • 315

XIII. Natural Endo-skeleton and Exo-skeleton of American Bull-frog

{Ccratophrys cornuta). Mr D. Knight, 317

XIV. Abnormal Growths on Root of Taxodium distichum. Mr H.

Feasee 318

Meetings of Miceoscopic Section,— 319

On the Progress of Microscopical Eesearch. The President.

Notes on Microscope Objectives. Mr W. Porgan.

The Tongue of the Blow-fly in relation to its Food. Mr J. D. Murray.

On an Improved Form of Centering Nosepiece, for use with Brooke's

Double Nosepiece for Microscope. Mr A. Frazer, M.A.
On a Simple Form of Self-centering Turntable for Ringing Microscopic

Specimens. Mr A. Frazer, M. A.
On an Improved Sliding Nosepiece and Adapter for the Microscope; Mr

J. M. TURNBULL.

Annual Business Meeting, 337

Index, 339

Lists of Membees, 1881-86, . . . • ' • • • i-^^

03nAUT

BOTANICAL
GARDEN

TEANSACTIONS.

INTRODUCTORY NOTE.

nnHE Edinburgh Naturalists' Field Club was instituted in
1869 for the practical study of Natural History in all
its branches. For a number of years the work of the Club
was carried on by a series of field-meetings only — held princi-
pally during the months of May, June, and July. It was
then thought that it would be for the interests of the Club
to hold a series of evening meetings during the winter months,
at which papers bearing on the work of the Club in the field
and otherwise might be read and discussed. At the annual
meeting of the Club in November 1879, it was agreed to
hold such evening meetings, which were at once arranged for,
and met with a large measure of success. The resolution to
publish Transactions not having been adopted till November
0/ 1881, it has been thought desirable to put on record a list
0. of the papers read, and objects in Natural History exhibited,

r

at the meetings during the two previous Sessions.

SESSION 1879-80.

" Colonsay." By Mr Symington Grieve,

" Recollections of Sutherlandsliire." By Mr Arch. Craig, jun.
'■'■ A collection of British Mosses " made by Mr Grieve during
1879.

VOL. I. A

2 Introductory Note.

"A small collection of British Birds and their Eggs." By Mr
Craig, jiTn.

'' A collection of British Butterflies." By Mr Moffat, Secretary.

" Duddingston and Trinity College Church plates, and a series
of old Communion Tokens." By Mr W. Ivison Macadam.

" Notes on the rarer plants of the Lomonds and Pentlands, with
specimens." By Mr P. B. Gibb.

" On Mosses : illustrated with diagrams." By Mr Moffat,
Secretary.

" Note on the breeding of the Siskin in Scotland." By Mr Arch.
Craig, jun.

^' The Cliffs and Caves of Colonsay, and some things they teach
regarding Britain, past, present, and future." By Mr Symington
Grieve.

" The first decade of the Club, and how to render its work more
profitable." By Mr John Walcot, President.

« qi

The Natural History of Islay." By Mr E. Scott Skirving.

SESSION 1880-81.

" Dumfries and Criffel." By Mr John Walcot, President.

" The Scenery and Bird-life of Glen Urquhart, Inverness-shire :
with specimens." By Mr Arch. Craig, jun.

" Notes on a Botanical Trip to Ben Lawers in August 1880 ;
illustrated with specimens of the plants gathered." By Mr George
Bird.

" Insects." By Mr Moffat, Secretary.

"Eemarks on a Floral Plan of Ben Lawers." By Mr John
Sadler.

" Craigmillar : a Eeminiscence — Historical and Descriptive." By
Mr T. A. Douglas Wood.

'■'■ British Ferns : their Structure and Classification. Illustrated
by a collection of British Ferns and by microscopic preparations."
By Mr John Lindsay.

" The use of the Spindle and Whorl by the fishing classes of
Scotland." By Mr W. Ivison Macadam.

" Glen Lyon : its Scenery and Antiquities — embracing notices of
its curious circular forts." By Mr Arch. Craig, jun.

*' Some characteristics of the study of Natural Science." By Mr
John Walcot, President.

The interest of the meetings during 1880-81 was much
enhanced by the admirable series of preparations shown under
the microscope by Mr James Simpson.

I.— HOW WE SPENT THE 30th JULY 1S79 IN THE WILDS
OF KILMONIVAIG AND NORTH-WEST BADENOGH.

By Mr SYMINGTON GRIEVE.

{Ecad Oct. 20, 1881.)

TF you can do with climbing and plenty hard walking, and wish
■^ to spend a pleasant holiday among the mountains, our advice
is — visit Moy Farm. You reach it by taking the train to Kingussie
on the Highland railway, and thence the Fort William coach, which
passes Moy, and always waits a few minutes to change horses and
let the passengers have some refreshment. We have made this
place our headquarters more than once when away for a holiday.
But we shall only write of one memorable day's outing, when the
writer had with him two companions.

We took the coach as it was going from Fort William to Kin-
gussie, and about nine o'clock in the morning were set down at the
entrance to Aberairder Glen. The weather was magnificent ; the
scenery almost unequalled for beauty. The hum of insects and the
song of birds, the sound of the rippling waters breaking against the
shores of Loch Laggan, and the tumultuous roar of mountain tor-
rents, betokened that all nature was revelling in the suusliine of
another day. No wonder that we felt able for any amount of
fatigue when we had such surroundings — especially when braced
by the exhilarating mountain air of Badenoch. The rugged path
took us up past Aberairder Farm, and into the glen among woods
of Birch, Oak, and Hazel. The branches of the trees hung with
festoons of beautiful Mosses, one of the most attractive being Ayiti-
trichia curtipendula, Brid., which was in fine fructification ; while
under foot were dense cushions of Racomitrium heterostichum and
R. lanuginosum, Brid., variegated here and there with patches of
Iceland and Reindeer Moss [Getraria islandlca and Gladonia rangi-
ferlna). And occasionally we came across the cone-shaped heaps
of dried and broken twigs that marked the formicarias of the
wood ant [Formica rufa). These little insects, always busy, may
sometimes prove of use to the naturalist if he wishes to prepare
the skeleton of a bird, fish, or any small animal. He has only to
leave the dead body on one of these ant-hills, and he will find his

4 Transactions of the [Sess.

object very soon attained, and the work done as well as if tlie speci-
men had been placed in the hands of the most skilful taxidermist.

Emerging from the wood, we enter upon a stretch of moorland
and morass, and here find the Cloudberry {Rubus ChamcBmorus, L.) ;
and after a hard walk at last reach Loch Cor Arder, which nestles
in a deep dark corrie with tremendous cliffs at its upper end, which
vary in height from 1400 to 1600 feet. The whole scene was im-
pressive,— the silent grandeur of the mountains that towered above
us to such a height, and yet seemed so near ; the dark waters of
the loch, the one moment calm, the next furrowed by a sudden gust
of wind ; while the breeze wailed as it passed along the face of the
cliffs, seeming to betray the presence of some great unseen spirit.
The wild flowers that dotted the beach bordering upon the shores
of the loch attracted our attention, and the beautiful white blooms
of the hairy Alpine Mouse-ear Chickweed [Cerastium alpinum, L.)
and the cream-coloured corollas of the Mossy Saxifrage [Saxifraga
hypnoides, L.), blending with the darker background of moss and
rock, lit up to some extent the sombre picture.

The time had now arrived for lunch, and appetised by the exer-
tions we had undergone, combined with the pure air that acted as
the best of tonics, we sat down upon a knoll, the grass on which
was interlaced with the trailing stems of the common Club-moss
[Lycopod'mm clavatum, L.) ; and as we rested we watched the wary
but voracious Trout rising on the surface of the loch, as they pur-
sued the unsuspecting flies that either glided along close to the
water or rested upon the transparent element, from whose bosom
they had so shortly before sprung into life. Our repast ended, we
got up our fishing-rod and soon captured some dozens of nice Trout,
■ — very lively on the line, but small in size, most of them averaging
about ten to the pound. The best flies, we found, were those with
Teal Drake wings and orange worsted bodies, with a spiral band of
gold tinsel — hooks ordinary loch size. When we started upon our
excursion, it was our intention, after reaching Loch Cor Arder, to
return the way we had come, and get the coach back to Moy as it
went westwards in the afternoon ; but tempted by the weather, we
determined to ascend through a gully named Aberairder Window to
the summit of Creag Meaghaidh (pronounced Craig Meggy), a moun-
tain 3700 feet in height. To climb this gully — which presents the
appearance of its having been the place where two mountains were
rent asunder, and the intervening chasm partially filled in with
their debris — was rather difficult and dangerous. The ascent is
very steep, and over loose rocks that are poised against each other
in such a way that to move one caused a sympathetic movement
among others ; and one false step might mean broken limbs, or
something even worse. But we made the ascent of 1500 feet with-
out mishap — the only unpleasant experience met with being the

1 88 1 -82.] Edinburgh Naturalists Field Club. 5

effluvia tliat emanated from the carcasses of sheep that had fallen
from the ledges of the cliffs, and testified, by tlieir shattered ap-
pearance, to the dreadful fall to which they had been subjected.
Near the summit we came upon a patch of Moss Campion [Silene
acauUs, L,), but only got a few specimens in flower ; and a little
higher up the Parsley Fern [Allosorus crispus, Bernh.) is met with in
great abundance — some of the plants growing np through the half-
melted snow. At last we reach the ledge, and find that the sides
of the Window are formed by the opposite cliffs of the upper part
of the chasm. The lintel is awanting, but tlie ledge is composed
of masses of rock that have here fallen in a kind of ridge across the
gully ; and behind this there is a deep basin, which is always filled
with snow. To cross its immaculate surface seemed rather hazard-
ous, as a descent into its depths would have cooled our ardour ; so
it did not astonish us that our companions were inclined to hold
back. But having had an opportunity of testing its bearing powers
the previous day, we were able to assure them there was no danger,
and at length the advance was begun. We at once discovered that
the snow was only soft on the top, while underneath was quite
hard ; and all fears were so soon forgotten that we indiilged in the
delightful but unusual pastime of a snowball fight on the 30tli July.
It was in Loch Cor Roy, which lies at the foot of a great cliff about
the third of a mile to the nortli-west of this, that we caught some
specimens of the Salmo alpimis, or Alpine Char, on a previous occa-
sion. This rare fish is found in very few other lochs in Britain, and
the specimens now in the British Museum are from Loch Cor Roy.

Having crossed the snow-basin, we continued a short distance
westwards, then turning abruptly to the left began to ascend the
shoulder of the mountain to the south-east, with the object of reach-
ing the top of the cliffs that rise out of the corrie in which lies Loch
Cor Arder. But when we approached the brink, intending to look
over, the abyss seemed so dreadful that we shrank back from the
attempt. We had been at this spot at various times, but had
never seen it so clearly in all its loneliness. The contrast only
served to impress upon us the impossibility of conveying an adequate
idea of the change that comes over the scene in time of storm,
when the mountain is wrapped in a thin mist that gathers more
densely in the hollows, and the white vapour that fills Cor Arder
is wrought into weird and fantastic forms by the wind, which
hisses like a myriad of vipers as it dashes over the cliff", causing
the mist to seethe as if it were the steam rising from a caldron ;
while from far down in the hidden dej)ths of the corrie rise the
sounds of the dashing waters of miniature cascades, like the cry of
a multitude in distress, that conjure up within the mind a purga-
torial picture well worthy of a place in Dante's Inferno.

It was now nearly four o'clock in the afternoon, and as we are to

6 Transactions of the [Sess.

ascend to the top of the mountain we must be on our way ; so turn-
ing our backs upon the corrie we face westwards, and proceed for
about half a mile over ground that gradually ascends, leading to-
wards the Sappers' Cairn, that crowns the highest elevation. The
whole heath was blackened by the frosts, while the snow that had
lain all winter was still to be foimd in patches ; and to the north
side of the ridge was a great drift that rested on the upper part of
a small glacier, whose face, exposed to the sun, had been melted
out into small grottos that might have been the vestibules to a
fairy palace. But we had no time for examining those strange
sights, worthy of hyperborean regions ; the cry is, '' First to the
top ! " and we push panting on, and, notwithstanding our effort,
fail to make up on one of our companions, who had got a consider-
able start ; but, with a final rush, we touch the cairn, and out of
breath gladly sink down upon one of the large stones that compose
its base. It took us a few moments to recover from our exertion ;
but when we were able to look around us, the view that met our
gaze from the position, 3700 feet above sea-level, was magnificent
and impressive. The sun, sinking towards the west, was casting
across the glens the dark shadows of the mountain outlines, that
ever seemed to be ascending as the orb of day went lower in the
firmament. But at various points the oblique rays struck the waters
of some Highland loch or small mountain tarn, transforming its
dark surface into the appearance of a sheet of burnished gold ; while
the lower hills were irradiated with the beautiful hue of blue that
told of the bursting bloom of the Heather [Calluna vulgaris). In
every direction the mountains rose up from glens in all the glory
of their ruggedness, displaying upon their sides variegated colours
that were the shadow of the corrie or the tints of Heath, Moss, or
Heather ; while here and there the white streak that looked like a
line of white quartz-rock defined the course, and marked the
cascades, of the foaming torrent. Away to the south, from east to
west, could be seen the mountains of the southern Highlands, with
Ben Cruachan raising its mighty peak like a hoary sentinel. To
the north, almost beneath our feet, under the precipitous cliif
crowned by the summit of Creag Meaghaidh, lay the Lochan
Uaine ; and beyond were the wilds of Kilmonivaig and bleak
Corryarrick, where Prince Charlie and the clans fortified them-
selves in 1745. The background to this view was the snow-
crowned head of Mealfourvounie ; and in the far distance we
thought we could distinguish the top of Ben Wyvis. To east
or west we could almost see across Scotland. In the one direc-
tion were the mountains that line either side of Strathdee, while
in the opposite was the massive brow of Ben Nevis, and far down
in the hollow at its foot the glittering waters of Loch Eil — the bold
outlines of the mountains of Ardnamurchan and Ardgour, standing

1 88 1 -82.] EdinburgJi Naturalists' Field Chib. 7

out against the sky, completing the picture. But while gazing in
admiration on this scene we forget that time goes on, and that wo
have a long walk ere we arrive at our destination. We have hardly-
started before our attention is attracted by a very dark patch of
ground, which we find studded over with dwarf plants of the Starry
Saxifrage {Saxifraga stellaris^ L.) without any flowering stems, the
flowers being imbricated among the leaves ; while alongside grows
the Dicranum Starkii, W. & M., with its hoary diaphanous foliage.
We now turn to the south along the shoulder of the mountain, and
go almost in a straight line for about three-quarters of a mile, when
we come upon a tract where the soil was composed of finely broken
quartz ; and here we found perhaps the rarest plant of this district
— the Alpine Stitchwort [Stellaria cerastoides, L.), which, with its
trailing stems and white flowers, was in striking contrast with tlie
ground we had just come over. The descent from this point, which
is about 3000 feet above sea-level, was very rapid, and we' pro-
ceeded down along the right bank of a burn that falls into Moy
Water until we arrive at the junction of the two streams at aboiit
an altitude of 2000 feet. This part of our journey we found the
best for botanising, for here we got the mountain form of the
Scurvy-Grass {Cochlearia officinalis^ L.), the Alpine Meadow-Eue
[Thalictrum alpinwn, L.), the Least Willow [Salix herbacea, L.) — the
smallest native shrub found in Britain. The Yellow Mountain
Saxifrage [Saxifraga aizoides, L.) was growing on the wet rocks of
the burn, while on the banks that rose on either side grew large
plants of the usual form of the Starry Saxifrage (Saxifraga stellaris,
L.) ; and here also among the rocks grew the Dwarf Cud-weed
[Gnaphalium supinum, L.), and the largest plants we have ever
seen of the Fir Club-moss [Lycopodium Selago, L.) From the junc-
tion of the two streams the descent was more gradual for about
half a mile, but over very rough and boggy ground, that greatly
taxed our exhausted energies. The only plants of special interest
that we met with were the rather rare Moss, Oligotrichum hercyni-
eum, DC), the Alpine Club-moss [Lycopodium alpinum, L.), and
the Alpine Lady's Mantle [Alchemilia alpina, L.) which grows in
the crevices between the granite boulders all the way down, along
the edges of the bed of Moy Water, until it joins the river Spean.
In the bog at one place there is a patch of thick peat from which
large tree-stumps project, and mark the site of part of the old
Caledonian Forest ; but it does not appear that more than clumps
of these trees existed, as most of the hillsides are devoid of peat,
and very bare. We had gone nearly two miles farther on our way
before we found any other plants worth noting, but in a boggy
part of the moor we got the two rarer varieties of Sundew [Drosera
intermedia., L., and D. anglica, Huds.) These plants are most inter-
esting from their carnivorous powers, and have been the subject of

8 Transactions of the [Sess.

most careful study by the late Dr Charles Darwin. They are easily
grown in a saucer filled with wet Moss, if it is placed in a situation
where the air is humid. The hairy appendages with which the
leaves are furnished have a minute globule of mucilage at the
point of each, and the unwary fly or other insect that comes in
contact with these at once adheres, and gradually is absorbed by
the plant.

The setting sun was gilding the mountain-tops, and the shades
of night were falling upon the lower ground, when at last we
arrived in sight of our destination. A few minutes more and we
were receiving a kindly welcome from those who thought some
accident had befallen us, or that we had lost ourselves.-^ A refresh-
ing wash, and a cosy tea, soon made us forget our fatigues, and
then we all joined in recalling to each other the incidents and
adventures of a memorable day in the Wilds of Kilmonivaig and
North- West Badenoch.^

II.— NOTE ON THE HABITS OF THE SPOTTED FLYGATGHER

(MUSGIGAPA GRISOLA).

By Mr A. B. HERBEKT.

{Read Oct. 20, 1881.)

This bird was evidently a great favourite with Gilbert White of
Selborne, who aptly designates it " that most mute and most
familiar bird ; " for though it is said to occasionally ntter a faint
warble, it has no claim to being a song-bird, and its usual note is
a sharp call-note, or perhaps, more properly, cry of alarm, which is
generally accompanied by a quick opening and closing of the wings
as it sits on some post or dead branch on the look-out for flies and
other insects ; and as regards its familiarity, the nest is most
commonly placed in a tree trained against our dwellings or garden
walls, and I know scarcely any bird which has less fear of mankind.
Flycatchers come to us early in May, and leave in August or early

^ Some years ago an English gentleman was lost in this district among the
mountains for several days, and at last found his way into Glen Roy, where
he received the necessary aid.

2 In addition to the Mosses mentioned, we also got the following : Webera
nutans, Schreb. , two varieties; W. Liidwigii, Spreng. , var. elata, Schpr. , growing
at spring on north side of tlie summit ; Hi-yum alpinum, L. , lax form ; Grim-
mia Hartmanni, Schpr. , abnormal, and dwarf leaf-points distorted ; Dicranum
faicatum, Hedw. ; Philonotis fontana, L.

1 88 1 -82.] Edinburgh Naturalists' Field Club. 9

in September. They are so very local in their habits that they are
seldom seen more than about 200 yards from their nesting-place.
An instance of this peculiar habit may be observed in the Dean
Cemetery, where they breed regularly. You may go to the eastern
part of the cemetery again and again and never see them ; but
within a hundred yards of the western entrance they are always to
be found in the summer months, and their sharp staccato note
greets you there at once. As far back as my memory extends,
I have been a close observer of the habits of these interesting
summer migrants ; for when I was a child, a pair of Flycatchers had
their nest year after year in the same branch of a Banksian Rose
trained round my bedroom window, and I am quite convinced that
the same birds or their young return annually to the same spot for
nidification, and somehow there is always associated in my mind
with these favourite birds the rich perfume from the clusters of
white bloom of the Banksian Eose. ••<.

My principal object in writing these remarks on the Flycatcher
is to contradict in the most emphatic manner an editorial note to a
popular edition of White's ' Selborne,' where this very useful bird
is most unjustly libelled as a destroyer of Bees ; and I much fear
the erroneous impression conveyed by this note has been the death
of many a poor innocent Flycatclier. I had frequently observed
the birds follow a Bee, seize it, and then settle on the gravel walk
and beat it to death ; but I felt sure the bird with its short beak
dare not do this to a ivorlcer Bee on account of its sting, and tliat it
must be feeding on the stingless drones — and I determined to
ascertain this fact beyond the possibility of doubt. So the next time
I saw the bird thus occupied, immediately it settled on the walk I
threw a clod of earth and made it relinquish its prey. This I did
at various times, and always with the same result — viz., that, as I
expected, the insect was invariably a drone, and not a worker Bee.
Now the time when the Flycatchers require these fat drones for
their young is after the swarming season is over, and then the
workers themselves are turning out and destroying the drones,
which are no longer necessary in the economy of the hive ; and
therefore the birds are assisting the workers instead of destroying
them, and are consequently friends, and not enemies, to the bee-
keeper. I need scarcely mention that now, 20th October, there
are no drones in our bee-hives.

Men should hesitate before publishing as facts in Natural History
the results of superficial and careless observation. If the writer
above referred to had reasoned on the improbability of a short-
billed bird catching stinging Bees with impunity, and followed up
his investigations, he would not have promulgated this erroneous
statement, which, I have no doubt, has been copied into other
works, I once saw a Sparrow take a drone from the landing-board

10 Transactions of tJie [Sess.

of a hive ; but Sparrows are not enemies to Bees, and I venture to
suggest that the Mantuan swain was in error when, in the 4th
Georgia, he mentions the Swallow as a destroyer of Bees. Virgil's
remark may be literally translated thus — " The bloody-breasted
Swallow bears away in her beak the Bees while on the wing, sweet
morsels for her merciless young." And I am confirmed in my view
by the following remark from a correspondent in the last number
of the ' British Bee-Keeper's Journal.' He says : " I saw a Swallow
fly up to another which was sitting on a telegraph whe, and put
something into its mouth, and then go away ; the other almost
immediately dropped what it had received. Noticing that it
looked large, I went and examined it, and found it to be a large
drone." A writer in the * Field Naturalists' Magazine ' for 1834
also states that, having observed some Swallows seize Bees in
passing his hives, he shot them, and on opening them found that
although they were literally crammed with drones, there was not a
vestige of a working Bee. The Blue Tit [Parus cceruleus) has also
been accused of killing worker Bees, but I very much doubt
whether any of our short-billed birds dare attack a stinging Bee.
Having mentioned the subject of Bees, it may be interesting to
manj^ of our members to know that a new Bee to this country has
recently been introduced from Cyprus, and called the Cypriote Bee.
I saw lately a hive of these near London, and they are extremely
pretty insects, and very industrious — much smaller and lighter in
colour than the Ligurian or Italian Bees, now so common in our
apiaries. The owner of these Cypriotes had them in a bar-framed
hive, and kindly took out several frames with the insects clustering
on them for my inspection ; but I am sorry to say he gave them a
bad character for irritability, and for using their stings at the
slightest provocation, being almost as bad in this respect as the
little vicious Egyptian Bees. But to return to the subject of my
note. The Flycatcher is most usefal in destroying many insects
which are injurious to vegetation, and I will mention one species
in particular. We often see a white Cabbage Butterfly flitting
about, apparently in a most innocuous manner, over a bed of Cauli-
flowers or other plants of the Brassica tribe. But watch the insect
closely, and if a female, you will observe her settle first on one
plant, and then on another, at short intervals. Examine at once the
spots where she settled, and you will find small white eggs depos-
ited on the leaves. These soon become green grubs, which injure
and disfigure the plants — in many instances, where the grubs are
numerous, rendering the plants unfit for human food. Now, if you
have our friend the Flycatcher in the garden, the Butterfly's career
is usually cut short before it has time to do much mischief Her
eye is upon it as it comes " over the garden wall," and it is soon
seized, its wings bitten off and carried away by the wind, and the

1881-82.] Edinburgh Naturalists' Field Club. 11

body swallowed or taken to tlie nest. Entomologists may say the
insects should be allowed to live ; but many of us will be of opinion
that they should at any rate be kept within reasonable bounds, as
nature intended, by the birds, and that we prefer the vegetables
minus the grubs.

Much as I like and value the Flycatchers, truth compels me to
admit that they will occasionally give their young a few Red
Currants ; but considering the great service they render to the
gardener, I never grudged them these, and it is only very rarely
that they deviate from their habit of being purely insectivorous.

A pair of Flycatchers had their nest for many years in the same
fork of a Pear-tree in my garden. There was another nest in an
Apricot-tree against the wall, too near the ground to be safe from
cats, so in the winter I cut out half a brick higher up to make a
suitable nesting-place for my feathered friends on their arrival in
the spring. But to my surprise, before the migrants arrived a
Eobin took possession of the hole, and had young nearly fledged
when the Flycatchers appeared. As soon, however, as the Robins
flew, I cleared out the nest, and had the satisfaction of seeing the
Flycatchers rear their young in the same hole that summer, and
for many consecutive summers afterwards. Many curious places
have been chosen by these birds for nidification— for instance, one
in the ornamental crown top of a lamp in the office of the Woods
and Forests, Whitehall, London ; another in the stove of the late
President of the Horticultural Society, who noticed that during
incubation, when the thermometer indicated a higher temperature
than 72°, tlie bird often left the nest for a considerable interval ;
and I once saw a nest on the top of a Cactus in our vicar's con-
servatory in England. This Cactus was of very irregular growth,
and there was a cavity just under the Flycatcher's nest, in which
a Wren built her nest, and the two birds reared their respective
young ones in close contiguity in perfect amity.

In conclusion, I will merely remark that if these rough notes
should in some degree prevent the destruction of birds so useful to
both gardeners and farmers, and so interesting in their habits to
ornithologists, my object will be attained ; and I trust many will
hesitate before they give credence to an accusation so unjustly
made against our " most mute and most familiar " little friend, the
Spotted Flycatcher.

12 Transactions of the [Sess.

III.— BONES AND SHELLS TAKEN FROM A KITCHEN-
MIDDEN ON INCHKEITH DURING 1881.

Exhibited by Me, T. B. SPRAGUE.

{Oct. 20, 1881.)

Mr T. B. Sprague exhibited a number of bones and shells he had
collected from a kitchen-midden on Inchkeith. The midden is situ-
ated on the high ground at the back of Battery No. 2, recently
erected on the island, and a good section of it is exposed by the
trench which surrounds the battery. The midden is composed
principally of shells of the common Limpet [Patella vulgata) and
Periwinkle [Littorina littorea), exactly similar to those which are
at present found in great quantities upon the rocks of the island.
There were also some shells of Purpura kqnllus, and two fragments
of Crabs' claws [Cancer Pagurus). The bones collected by Mr
Sprague are chiefly those of the grey Seal and of various sea-birds,
such as the Solan Goose. There are 148 bones (or portions of
bones) of the grey Seal — including 6 rami (no two of which are
a pair), 10 humeri, 23 vertebrae (one only of which belonged to
an adult animal), 15 fragments of skull, and 22 ribs ; and there are
117 bones (or fragments of bones) of birds. There is one rib of
Sheep, 16 fragments of marrow-bones of ruminants — all of which
had been broken, apparently for the purpose of extracting the
marrow — and one fragment of a large bone of some large animal
(Horse ?). One of the bones, a fragment of a Seal's rib, bore a mark
which may possibly have been caused by a dog's tooth ; and one of
the bones evidently belonged to an individual that was wounded by
a flint-headed arrow, but escaped and lived for a considerable time
afterwards, before it was actually captured. Professor Turner, who
has seen the bones, points out that the ten humeri of Seal belonged
to at least six different individuals, of which only one was mature,
and suggests that Inchkeith was probably a favourite breeding-place
of the Seal at the time the bones accumulated. Mr Sprague stated
that in the centre of the midden he found the remains of a fireplace
or hearth formed of fi'agments of rock ; and he exhibited two frag-
ments of the bones of some ruminant animal, which were rounded
at the ends, and appeared to have been used as some kind of rude
implement. He did not find any arrowheads or stone implements ;
but the midden, of which he only explored a small portion, appeared
to cover a considerable extent of ground, and probably would re-
ward the labours of other investigators.

In the ' Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland ' for

1 88 1 -82.] Edinburgh Naturalists^ Field Club. 13

11th March 1872, there is an accovmt by Mr David Grrieve of a
kitchen-midden on Inchkeith examined by him in the year 1870.
He says : " The locality is within a gunshot of the landing-pier on
the east side, and in the slope or talus inclining from the cliffs to
the beach." The bones obtained by him were portions of skull
and a cervical vertebra of grey Seal ; eleven bones of Sheep ; one
bone of Pig; seven bones of Ox {Bos) ; cannon-bones, parts of jaw,
and several teeth of Horse ; jaw-bones and other bones of Eabbit ;
also many portions of bones, chiefly of Sheep and Ox (some
split). The shells found were^ — Littorina littorea, Patella vul-
gata, Buccinum imdatum, Ostrea edulis, Tapes pullastra, Purpura
lapillus, Pecten varius, and Pecten maximus. Mr Grieve states
that the Rabbit burrows and is in a wild state on the island at
present. On Mr Sprague's visit to the island no traces of the
Eabbit were to be seen, and it was stated that it had been ex-
terminated by the workmen engaged in building the fortifications
upon the island. On comparing the lists of bones and shells found
by Mr Grieve with those found by Mr Sprague, a very marked
difference is observed. Almost all the bones found by the former
were those of domestic animals, whereas in those found by the
latter a very small number of bones belonged to domestic animals,
and the great majority to the grey Seal. Mr Grieve does not
appear to have found any bones of birds, whereas Mr Sprague found
a large niimber of bones of sea-fowl of different kinds. It seems to
be a fair inference that the kitchen-midden examined by the former
is of a much later date tlian that examined by the latter — or, at all
events, that it was accumulated by men further advanced in civilis-
ation, and whose animal food was furnished more by their own
domestic animals than by sea-birds and beasts. This conclusion is
supported by the shells. Mr Grieve found shells of the Oyster and
Scallop, whereas the shells found by Mr Sprague consisted entirely
of Limpet and Periwinkle, and other shells which can be obtained in
great abundance upon the rocks at low water. Some kind of dredg-
ing apparatus is essential to procure the former ; and it seems a
fair inference that the men who accumulated the kitchen-midden
examined by Mr Sprague had no dredging apparatus svich as
must have been possessed by those who accumulated Mr Grieve's
kitchen-midden, and to that extent they were in a lower stage of
civilisation.

14 Transactions of the [Sess.

IV.— TEE PROBABLE EFFECTS OF A CHANGE OF ELEVA-
TION ON THE FLORA OF A COUNTRY.

By Mk W. TAIT KINNEAE.
{Eead 22d Bee. 1881.)

The object of the present paper is to throw out a few suggestions
as to the results which upheaval or depression might produce on
the flora of the district where these operations take place. It must
not be forgotten, however, that there are other powerful agencies at
work. Man has cut down enormous spaces of forest-land, and has
drained huge swamps, thus hastening the work of extermination
and introducing new plants. Seeds from distant countries are de-
posited in ballast-heaps, and often spread far and near, to the injury
of native plants. But most effectual of all, we notice that every
plant seems tied down more or less strictly to certain conditions of
existence, which in most cases it cannot go beyond. When these
conditions change slowly or quickly, it is evident that if the same
flora is to remain at that locality, it must adapt itself to the altered
conditions : if not, then it must be exterminated by those better
fitted to exist there.

The processes of upheaval and depression entail so many changes
with them, that it is reasonable to think that in past time they have
had some effect in modifying our present flora. Any process that
changes the habitats of plants must affect the plants themselves.
Upheaval changes the marsh into the plain, and the plain into
more or less hilly ground. The effects of upheaval are different
in different parts of the world. Thus a few hundred feet added to
some of the mountains of this country would develop conditions
suitable to the growth of an alpine flora. A depression of two
thousand feet without a decrease of temperature would exterminate
the greater part of an alpine flora from Britain. If, however, a de-
crease of temperature accompanied the process of depression, no
material effect would take place, for the alpine flora would descend
towards the coast.

High mountains in the tropics present an epitome of the different
zones of vegetation to be found as the traveller moves northwards
from the tropics. Agassiz has the following remarks on this point :
" The climatic effects of different levels of altitude upon the growth
of animals and plants is the same as that of different degrees of
latitude ; and the slope of a high mountain in the tropics from base
to summit presents in a condensed form an epitome, as it were,
of the same kind of gradation in vegetable growth that may be

1 88 1 -82.] Edinburgh Naturalists' Field Club. 15

observed from the tropics to the arctics." Nature affords several
effective means for the distribution of seeds, — either by currents of
air or water, birds, or furred animals ; so that if elevation should go
on in the tropics, the means are at hand to furnish a flora which
shall succeed a tropical flora that cannot ascend beyond a certain
limit. To this sub-tropical flora would succeed one characteristic
of temperate regions, should circumstances permit. Depression
going on to a sufficient extent would produce in a country possess-
ing different degrees of elevation a series of islands ; so that if we
find a series of islands possessing a similar flora, it is reasonable to
think that they may at some previous tinie have been united. A
converse process of upheaval going on in an archipelago would
convert a number of islands into a continuous belt of land, so that
in this case the conditions are favourable for the appearance of a
uniform flora.

We find at the present day that the means which nature employs
for scattering seeds over a large extent of the earth's surface pro-
duce effective results. A high wind will scatter the seeds of plants
that have lived on hilly ground over the marsh, meadow, and sea-
shore. The seeds of maritime plants must often be carried far
inland ; while it is needless to speak of the effects which sea-cur-
rents produce in conveying seeds from one part of the globe to the
other. Thus there is every chance given for an intermixture of
plants belonging to different habitats. But in reality, do we, as a
general rule, find the marsh plant growing alongside the agrarian
weed, or the littoral plant with that of the wood ? Speaking broadly,
we do not. If, then, the plants characteristic of lowland districts
will not grow in the sea-marsh, what will happen should a tract of
level country be turned into a sea-swamp ? If the change be
sudden, then there is no doubt but that maritime plants will
speedily exterminate all the others. But if the change be very
gradual, then there is great reason to think that some, if not
all, of the plants which grew on the open level grou.nd may
gradually adapt themselves to the new conditions of life. In this
way varieties may arise. Some plants would seem to be able to
defy extermination. There are several cosmopolitan genera which
no change of climate would cause to become extinct. Polygonum
amphibium grows in ponds and on dry land. Some plants in this
country range from the sea- shore to alpine limits, while others
would seem to take a leap from the sea-shore to the mountain, or
vice versa. It follows, then, that should the marsh be suddenly
elevated and di-ained, those plants which can grow both on moist
ground and on dry would not become extinct. Again, the mari-
time plants which in this country are found at alpine limits would
still continue to exist, even though the sea-line were rapidly ele-
vated. To account for the fact of Cochlearia officinalis, Armeria

16 Transactions of the [Sess.

niaritima, and Plantago maritima growing at the sea-shore, and
then, after an interval, on bleak mountain-tops, is not an easy task.
It cannot be said that the conditions of existence at alpine limits
are those next favourable for these plants to those conditions in
which they live at the sea-shore. Nor do we think the hypothesis
that these plants were once universally distributed between the two
spots is correct, for it does not seem to us consistent to think that
a plant about to be run down in the struggle for existence could
retreat to two habitats so entirely distinct.

A large number of instances could be given in which we find that
the species belonging to a single genus occupy different habitats.
Thus in the genus Carex we have species living on the sea-shore,
the marsh, and dry ground. The genus Veronica has species to
be found in marshy, semi-marshy, dry, and mountainous ground.
Other instances will occur to every one. How is it that two plants,
the differences between which the botanist only can determine,
occupy two habitats so entirely distinct from each other ? Should
not two species so similar to each other be able to live one in the
habitat of the other? Take two common plants, Veronica Becca-
bunga and V. hederEefolia : will the difference between them in the
matter of letif-form, or minute difference in the flower, account for
the one growing in the marsh and the other on the wayside ? We
are inclined to think that it will not. It is a fact that it is a
difScult matter to acclimatise alpine plants in gardens ; and it has
been proved that the best means of doing so successfully is to save
seeds from those alpines which have previously managed to thrive.
It is found that the plants which spring from these seeds are better
fitted to grow well than the plants from which they were derived.
A similar process may go on in nature. Suppose we have two
marshes where one plant grows. Suppose also that the one spot
very gradually becomes dry land, either through the gradually
filling up of the marsh by its own decayed vegetation, or by the
drainage, owing to some upheaval, being altered. As we have
supposed the change to proceed slowly, there is every reason to
think that the plant in question will be able to thrive until the
character of its former habitat is entirely changed. Differences in
the flower may come about by the unconscious selection by means
of insects which have not before visited it. During all this time
the same plant may be growing in the marsh which was not in a
process of transition into dry land. There is no doubt but that the
large number of species belonging to one genus that live under
identical conditions may be owing to the variation of one or two
original species, through the influence of the struggle for existence.
But it seems to us that when we find two species nearly identical
with each other inhabiting spots entirely different in character, the
cause of this must be owing to some such process as that just

1 88 1 -82.] Edinburgh Naturalists' Field Club. 17

mentioned. Besides, the researches of Bendant and Plateau have
proved that it is possible to accustom fresh-water species to live in
the sea, and marine species to live in fresh water. The experi-
ments of Schmawkewitch show that "by greatly increasing the
saltness of the water, the crustacean Artemia salina became trans-
formed in the course of a few generations into the totally dissimilar
species Artemia Mulhauseni ; while by the converse process he
succeeded in transmitting the latter back again into the former.
A stiU more extraordinary circumstance followed the dilution until
it was perfectly fresh of the salt water in which Artemia salina lives,
for in the course of a few generations the character of that species
became so changed that they finally assumed those of a different
genus, Branchipus." Can we draw an analogy ? Any two of these
crustaceans may have been derived from the other 1;^ the medium
in which they lived being altered by natural means, and not by
artificial methods as in the experiments. Similarly, one species
existing in a habitat in a gradual state of conversion into another
may become eventually specifically different from the same plant,
which may still exist in some remote part in its original state.

Upheaval of tlie sea-bottom in the direction of currents flowing
from continents will tend to extend the flora of that continent — at
least, of the parts opposite the spot where upheaval has taken
place. Thus the Bermudas, lying 800 miles east of the coast of
Virginia, and placed in the track of the Gulf Stream, have not a
single indigenous plant. They are all similar to those found on
the opposite coast of America. A contrary case is that of the
Mauritius, lying off the east coast of Africa, which has not a single
plant similar to those on the opposite African shore, owing to the
fact that no currents are said to run between the two spots. One
tropical plant, at least, is known to have been found in a germinating
condition on the southern shores of England ; and two American
plants, the Anacharis and Mimulus, have lately taken a strong hold
in this island. The time during which man has studied nature in
an intelligible manner has been so short, that there is no wonder
we have not learned wlience many of our native plants have come,
and what links in the chain of life have been broken. The direc-
tion of sea-currents must be dependent in some measure on the
distribution of the land. The present distribution of land and
water has not always existed ; and to cite one case only, the de-
pression of the land-surface of Britain before the deposition of the
Chalk must have been very great. Equally as great is the height
to which the secondary rocks of the Alps have been upheaved.
If the theory of the Weald be correct, then we once had a river
running through Britain as large as the Ganges, and therefore
draining a large part of land now covered by the Atlantic Ocean.
As islands lying off tlie coast of a continent generally possess a

VOL. I. B

18 Transactions of the [Sess.

flora similar to the latter, especially if currents run between the
two, a cessation of the currents may lead in time to the flora
becoming specifically, though not generically, distinct.

As the work of upheaval or depression cannot be going on every-
where at the same time, it follows that if we find the character of
one habitat changing, the plants which grew on it may retire to
others which are not changing, provided that means are present
for the efiectual transmission of seeds. This migration would be
most effectually accomplished among seeds with a pappus, while
pond-weeds whose seeds sink to the bottom might have some
difficulty in spreading. The principle of migration, if the word is
suitable for plants, finds a fitting analogy in paleontology. Be-
tween the Chalk and the Eocene there is an enormous break both
in geological time and fossil contents. This is correctly explained
by supposing that the mammals living at the time of the Weald
migrated elsewhere, upon the great depression of land-surface pre-
vious to the deposition of the cretaceous rocks, and returned during
Eocene times, previous to which a great process of upheaval took
place. Australia at the present day has several forms akin to
those of Mesozoic times, as the bivalve Trigonia, the Port Jackson
Shark, and the Burramunda [Ceratodus Fosteri), all of them gener-
ically akin to species long extinct in our islands, which must have
betaken themselves thither when they could no longer keep up the
struggle for existence here.

It is a fact well known to botanists that some alpines are not
restricted as to their range of altitude. On the west coast of Scot-
land they descend to sea-level. In mountainous districts they are
also found almost on a level with the sea-shore, especially if streams
running down from higher grounds are present. This fact may
either be owing to the excessive rainfall of the west coast, or from
the fact that the soil at the sea-shore is the same as that within
alpine limits, as all the rocks of the Highlands are metamorphosed
Lower Silurians, except the patches of Cambrian rocks in the ex-
treme north. From which it is evident that a very considerable
depression would not cause some of our alpines to become extinct
in certain parts of Scotland, where the moisture and soil are the
same as that on mountain-summits. We do not, however, find
alpines growing on the sea-coast in the east of Scotland, although
the seeds must be carried to sea-levels in some places ; and it
would be a curious matter to inquire into, and to ascertain whether,
if we had a rainfall on the west coast equivalent to that on the
east, and a soil resulting from the disintegration of carboniferous
rocks instead of Lower Silurians, we should still find alpines de-
scending to the sea-shore. Very probably they would not.

1 88 1 -82.] Edinburgh NaUiralists Field Club. 19

v.— NOTES OF A BOTANICAL RAMBLE IN THE SAENTIS
DISTRICT, SWITZERLAND, AUGUST 1881.

By Mr GEOEGE BIRD.

{Read Dec. 22, 1881.)

It is proposed in this paper to give a few notes of a recent trip to
Switzerland, with special reference to a botanical ramble in the
Saentis district. I was accompanied by our friend and fellow-
member, Mr J. C. Keller,! who, while spending his vacation in his
Swiss home, kindly undertook to make me acquainted with sonie of
the interesting features of his native mountains. Our headquarters
during our stay were at Eheineck, in the canton of Appenzell.
This flourishing and important village is prettily situated on the
banks of the Ehine, which forms at this point the boundary between
Switzerland and Austria. The buildings of which Rheineck
is composed are substantial edifices, forming several handsome
streets, with remarkably pretty suburbs stretching on either side.
The industries of curtain and embroidery manufactures are carried
on extensively, and the sound of busy shuttles may be heard
issuing from many of the larger structures as one passes along. To
the rear the ground rises at a considerable incline ; farmhouses
and mansions are scattered thickly on every available space, and
the banks which slope towards the river are occupied by orchards,
where immense quantities of fruit are raised, and where the Vine is
cultivated to a great extent. The views from the higher grounds
command comprehensive stretches of exquisite mountain scenery ;
the Lake Constance — a splendid sheet of water fifty miles in length
— lying to the left, while the intervening valley was richly culti-
vated with Maize and other products. We botanised in this
neighbourhood, examining all the plants that were in flower ; and
though we were rather late in the season for the flora generally,
what were got were interesting and abundant, none, however, being
considered rare, nor differing much from our own flora. The
weather was exceedingly warm, and a very noticeable feature was
the number of insects to be seen. The Crickets especially were
very active, and filled the air with a continual chirping ; while
Butterflies of beautiful hues flitted about in greater numbers than
one is accustomed to see them with us. A very conspicuous plant
everywhere on the roadsides was the Chicory [Cichorium Litybus),

1 We are sorry to have to record that Mr Keller died on the 10th January
1882.

20 Transactions of the [Sess.

its blue composite flowers rendering it quite an object of beauty.
It seemed generally diffused over Switzerland, at least on the lower
levels. In the marshy spots, where reeds were growing very high
and rank, the White Water-Lily [Nymphcea alba) was uncommonly
plentiful.

Having become familiarised with the plants of the district, we
completed our arrangements for a ramble on the Saentis, which is
the principal mountain-range in the canton of Appenzell. The
altitude is from four to eight thousand feet ; the highest point —
the Saentis itself — being 8215 feet, or about twice the elevation of
our highest mountain in Scotland, — Ben Nevis. As a convenient
starting-point we made our way to the town of Appenzell, and on a
bright and sunny morning at six we commenced our excursion.
Our road followed for some miles the side of a stream which wound
down the valley, the rich grassy verdure being clothed with num-
bers of our prettiest meadow plants, and bordered by a good deal
of small wood, such as Alder, Willow, Ash, and Plane. As we
advanced, the valley gradually narrowed, — the mountains towering
up on om- left, while on our right a beetling crag, rising steep and
high, closed in the river, now a much smaller though still impetuous
stream. Far up on the mountain-slopes nestled many a solitary
cottage, with its cattle and goats grazing in the adjacent ground.
As yet the plants we had met with differed but little from those
of a lower level. We had passed large quantities of Aconites, and
had picked up Alchemilla alpina (the Mountain Lady's Mantle),
one of our favourite Highland plants. Steadily pursuing the path
which carried us to the more open pastoral mountain-tops, our
plant examination became more interesting. Among the first good
" finds " was the Swiss Ehododendron, a purely alpine species. It
grows in the form of a bush, and its richly tinted blossoms render
it highly attractive. In many parts it is found in great abundance.
Thus, in the case of one mountain which we afterwards explored, it
literally clothed the rocks, just in the same way our Whin does with
us. The Swiss themselves are particularly partial to this plant,
and regard it as typical of the alpine region. One of their charming
songs commemorates its virtues.

The prevailing character of the rocks in the Saentis district is
limestone, which, being peculiarly liable to weathering, the moun-
tains assume very various conformations, according to the action of
the elements upon them. In some cases they presented rounded
tops and smooth slopes, while in others there were jagged ridges
with abrupt precipices extending for long distances. In many
parts frowning chasms, terrible almost to approach or look down,
separated one mountain from another; and as you picked your
steps along the face of the ridge, an immense depth below inspired
a feeling of sublimity and grandeur. It required very careful

1 88 1 -82.] EdinbiirgJi Naturalists Field Club. 21

work searching for plants in such circumstances ; but wlien any
good thing was found, one felt rewarded for the trouble. Towards the
afternoon we reached Meglis-alp (altitude 4800 feet), a halting-place
where pedestrians find tolerably good accommodation at a reasonable
rate. This inn or tavern is surrounded by a few other humble huts,
principally inhabited by herds who tend the goats and cattle, or are
occupied in making cheese. It is the custom to send the cattle to
graze in the higher grounds during the summer, and Meglis-alp is
one of those pasture-spots where ample herbage and good shelter
can be found. The cattle have generally a deep-sounding bell
attached to their neck, so that the tinkling of these bells falls not
unpleasantly on the ear at every motion of the animal. The moun-
tains in the vicinity of Meglis-alp are very lofty, and almost inac-
cessible unless to practised climbers. Without, therefore, attemj^ting
anything hazardous, we penetrated far up the valley lying between
the hills, where vegetation often lingers when the ordinary season
is past. In this way we had the gratification of meeting with
Soldanella montana, Primula farinosa, &c. It was also interesting
to observe in abundance, where some snow had recently melted,
strong and vigorous patches of our common marsh-plants, Caltha
l^alustris and Veronica Beccabunga.

The following morning we rose at one o'clock to continue our
ramble to the summit of the Saentis. It was still dark, and by the
aid of a lantern we filed out of the valley, up the face of the hill,
following a zigzag path, and round the ridges. The road was
steep and difficult for some distance, and rendered still more so
owing to the uncertain light ; but it was pleasant to feel the cool
air, instead of the beating sun we usually experienced during the
day.

The configuration of the rocks was very wild and grand, with
great depths below, and snow-fields in the distance. Very fre-
quently there were immense fissures and cracks — unmistakable
evidence of what atmospheric influences and water can do in break-
ing up, disintegrating, and altering even the " everlasting hills."
This was one of the most distinct features of these alpine solitudes.
The top of the mountain was composed of a huge cone, the actual
surface being rather limited. On all sides it was steep. We were
curious to know what flora we should find at these altitudes. There
were certainly more plants than one meets with on the top of any
of our Highland mountains, most of them species which were
gathered at a lower level, though the higher ones were much
stunted in growth. A very pretty Cerastium [G. latifoUum) whit-
ened the rocks with its snowy petals, having a habitat much like
our Ben Lawers variety. The turquoise-blue Myosotis alpestris
was very conspicuous, though only an inch high. On the ledges
Saxifraga Aizoon secured an existence by clinging to the inter-

22 Transactions of the [Sess.

stices of the rock; and Silene acaulis (Moss Campion), with its
pink cup-shaped florets, flourished on a grassy slope, giving it a
distinct colouring, and, together with a bright yellow Cinquefoil
[Potentilla aurea), enlivened these lofty retreats.

A good inn afforded shelter and refreshment on the summit, and
was largely taken advantage of, both by visitors who had ascended
overnight and by those arriving at all times during the day.

On commencing our descent, it was still early, so we devoted
the day to a leisurely return to Meglis-alp, examining anything of
geological interest, picking up many good plants, and enjoying the
magnificent alpine views which were every now and again dis-
closing themselves. Leaving the ordinary track, we took what
looked a much more direct way of getting down, but in so doing we
brought upon ourselves an amount of hard work we did not quite
expect. We were not long in finding that in this case appearances
were certainly deceptive ; and as it seemed a formidable task even
to regain the road again, it was resolved to persevere in the direc-
tion we had chosen. I can scarcely give a clearer idea of the kind
of footing we had, than by suggesting that one of the mountains
had but recently been broken up into fragments, and the pieces,
varying from some tons' weight each to a few pounds, had been
tumbled down the sides of the valley, and allowed to sort them-
selves. This extended for some miles, so that it was a continual
scramble from one rock to another, the edges of the stone affording
a difficult footing. When we did reach the bottom, however, it was
not without a thrill of satisfaction, and, looking back, we could in
a greater degree realise the power of the physical forces at work
whereby these rocks were arranged as we now find them. We had
evidently been following what was the bed of an alpine torrent,
which in the spring carried the ice and melted snow from the
higher elevations, and it was stupendous in all its bearings.

On the following days the weather still kept very favourable,
enabling us to continue our excursion to neighbouring mountains,
but the altitude of these being considerably lower, the alpine flora
was not so characteristic. The subjoined list contains the rarer
plants collected, omitting the commoner species, which were iden-
tical with those of our own flora ; and I am indebted to Mr Eobert
Lindsay, of the Royal Botanic Garden, for his kind assistance in
determining several of the plants in this list : —

Achillea atrata.
Alchemilla alpina.
Allium lanceolatum.

II pedemontanum.
Allosoi'us crispus.
Anemone alpina.

Ti trifoliata.
Asplenium viride.

Aster alpinus.
Astrantia minor.
Campanula barbata.

It alpina.

II Traclielium.

II rapunculoides.

Cerastium latifolium.
Chrysanthemum alpinum.

i88i-82.]

Edinburgh Naturalists Field Club.

23

Cystopteris fragilis.
Dianthus siiperbus.
Dryas octopetala.
Epipactis latifolia,
Erigeron alpinuni.
Geiitiana acaulis.

M asclepiadea,

II bavaiica.

M campestris.

II excisa.

M Pneiimonanthe.

II Saponaria.
Globularia cordifolia.
Gymnadenia conopsea.
Gypsophila prostrata.
Hutchinsia alpina.
Myosotis alpestris.
Nigritella angustifolia,
Paris quadrifolia.
Parnassia palustris.
Pedicularis verticillata.
Poa alpina.

Polygonum viviparuni.
Polysticlium Loncliitis.

Potentilla maculata.

II aurea.

Primula farinosa.
Ranunculus alpestris.

II II var. Ber-

tolonii.
II montanus.

Rhododendron hirsutum.
Rumex scutatus.
Saxifraga Aizoon.

II aizoides.

II II var. auran-

tiaca.

II ccesia.

II diapensioides.

II muscoides.

II rotundifolia.

II stellaris.

Scutellaria alpina.
Serratula tinctoria.
Soldanella montana.
Thlaspi rotundifolium.
Vaccinium Vitis-Idrea.
Veronica urticttfolia.

At the meeting of tlie 22d December 1881, the following series
of animal parasites was shown under the microscope by Mr
James Simpson : —

Pediculus capitis (from the Australian

savage).
Braula c;eca (from the Queen Bee).
Colpocephalum sub-asquale (from the

Crow).

Docophorus ocellatus (from the Crow).

II aquilinus (from the Golden

Eagle).

Trichodectes subrostratus (from the

Cat — first specimen

recorded in Britain).

II scalaris (from the Ox).

II Equi (from the Horse).

Hasmatopinus sp. (from the Mouse).
II sp. (from the Buffalo,

India).
II Suis (from the Pig).

II spinulosus (from the

Rat).
Nirmus cameratus {, ? (from the

Capercaillie).
Lipeurus sp. c? 9 (from the Caper-
caillie).
II pelagicus (from the Fulmar
Petrel).
Nycteribia sp. 6 (from the Flying Fox).

Mites.

Dermaleichus chelopus 9 (from the
Blue Titmouse).
II bifidus 6 9 (from the

Blue Titmouse).

Glyciphagus plumiger 6 9 (very rare).
II sp- 9 (probably a new-

species).

24 Ti'aiisactions of tlie [Sess.

VI.— THE HAUNTS AND HABITS OF THE CROSSBILL
(LOXIA CUBVIROSTBA).

By Mr ARCHIBALD CRAIG, Jun.

{Read Jan. 26, 1882.)

This very curious bird is of much commoner occurrence in
various parts of Scotland than is generally supposed, which may
be accounted for in part by its chiefly inhabiting the dense Fir
forests of the north, — its general quiet habits also rendering it at
times a matter of some difficulty to discover its whereabouts. The
district where the species most abounds is Strathspey, particularly
in the plantations around Castle Grant, where, by the way, they
used to be denominated the " American Bird " by the youth of the
neighbourhood. But besides that locality, numbers have occurred
at different periods of the year in the woods of Dulsie, near Elgin,
in the Fir forests of Ross-shire, Sutherlandshire, Dumfriesshire,
Peeblesshire, and also in Glen Urquhart, Inverness-shire. Judging
from accounts contained in works on ornithology, its numbers must
have vastly increased in Scotland of late years ; but there can be
little difficulty in accounting for that circumstance, when we take
into consideration the great extent of country now planted with
Firs, which in the early part of the present century was barren
muirland or rough hillside ; so consequently the birds, finding a
sufficient supply of food, remain all the year round, in place of
migrating to foreign lands. Numerous instances are on record of
their sudden appearance in various parts of England, where they
were quite unknown previously — as far back even as the year
1254, also during the reign of Queen Elizabeth, and at various
other periods,- — for information as to which, reference may be made
to Yarrell's or Morris's ' British Birds.' In the former work will be
found a quaint description in old English of a flock which visited
Kent in 1593, but which it is unnecessary to quote here. A still
older mention of the Crossbill is contained in a fanciful superstition
from the German, translated and versified by the poet Longfellow,
and appearing in his poems under the title of "Legend of the
Crossbill." The conception is a strange one, savouring slightly of
absurdity ; yet, however fantastic and unreal the idea may appear
to the reader, the subject is hardly one to be commented upon in
a paper like this, and certainly of too solemn a nature to be turned
into ridicule. Other instances might be quoted to show that its
presence in many parts of Great Britain has been noticed from time

1 88 1 -82.] Edinburgh NaUiralists Field Chtb. 25

to time during several centuries ; but as they may all be gathered
from the standard works on natural history now in use, with these
few introductory remarks we may turn more particularly to the
habits and outward appearance of the bird itself.

With the exception of the short season of incubation, Crossbills
are almost invariably observed in flocks, especially during autumn
and winter, although at times solitary individuals are met with in
most unlikely places. The numbers composing the flocks vary
very much, ranging from little bands of five or six up to largo
companies of sixty or seventy, the latter including both the old
birds and the young of the year, whereas the smaller lots are most
likely to be the parents with their own offspring alone. A good
deal of uncertainty exists as to the times of breeding. In mild
seasons many nest in February, which is just about a month
earlier than the earliest of our native birds, such as the Eavenand
Eook. But again, many seem to postpone operations until May or
June. The reasons for this variation are not easy of solution, Au
open winter and early spring may no doubt induce them to pair a
little sooner than they would feel inclined to do in a cold backward
season, when the stock of food wherewith to feed the young would
naturally be scarcer ; but, on the other hand, it is confidently
asserted by those who have studied their habits that the birds
found in May and June are second broods, which is probable
enough, as many species rear two and even three successive
families in a season. Without further opportunities for closer
observation, it would be premature to ofler an opinion as to which
suggestion is the correct one. They are very affectionate to each
other, and not much addicted to quarrelling, their principles being
usually those commended in the psalm regarding brethren dwelling
in unity. Yet, notwithstanding their general love of peace, a few
overstep the bounds of discretion now and again, more particularly
a short time prior to the pairing season. They may be seen
occasionally fighting furiously in the air, screaming harshly the
while — whether animated by jealousy or the mere fondness for
testing their strength would be difficult to decide. As a rule,
however, they may be said to agree admirably, and do not seem to
attack other birds, although frequently accompanied by parties of
Siskins, Eedpolls, Tits, &c. In the late autumn the former birds
more frequently join the Crossbills than at any other time of the year,
probably " with an eye to the main chance " — it being very evident
that they take advantage of the Crossbill's superior facilities for
breaking open the cones to pick out the seeds from the half-opened
ones left by the larger birds, without which assistance it would be
rather an arduous task for them to extract any, especially when the
cones are firm and unburst.

While on the subject of food, it would be as well to explain

26 Transactio7is of the [Sess.

shortly the interesting process by which the Crossbill contrives to
pick up a living out of such apparently dry substances as Fir cones.
In the case of the Larch cones, the bird usually cuts them off with
its powerful bill much in the same way that a pair of scissors is
used, then transfers the cone to its feet as you may have seen a
Parrot hold a stick in its cage. But as the mode of procuring the
seed can be better explained on the larger Spruce cone, I shall take
it as an example. If the cone is not too big, the bird snips it off
also, holding it against the branch with its claws ; but should it
prove too heavy, it hangs on back downwards after the manner of
a Tit or Siskin. In either case the mode of procedure is similar.
The under mandible has a sidelong motion as well as the up-and-
down action possessed by all birds, so that being the case, it has
an extra purchase over the cone, as will be seen presently. It
inserts its bill underneath the scale of the cone, and moves the
lower jaw to the side, at the same time opening its mouth, which
double action has the desired effect of raising up the sheath. That
done, it pushes out its long worm-like tongue and pulls the seed
into its mouth, letting drop the thin papery-looking substance on
the end of which the seed is placed. This operation is performed
in far less time than it takes to tell, and it is marvellous how soon
a strong old bird can finish a cone. The end of the tongue is
furnished with a sharp bony appliance somewhat resembling a
" scoop " in structure, which materially assists the bird in extracting
the seed. From this slight description can be understood the use
of the twisted mandibles, which, in place of being a deformity or
malformation, as the old naturalists maintained, is a wise provision
of nature to enable the bird to procure its food easily. In fact, an
ordinarily constituted bill would be next to useless ; and as it has
hard work to do, Providence has endowed it with an extra-powerful
organ to accomplish its purpose. The upper mandible crosses
sometimes to the right and sometimes to the left ; but it is quite a
mistake to suppose that the manner of crossing is a distinguishing
mark of the sex, each sex having the bill twisted in both directions.
Some have the mandibles more crossed than others — not neces-
sarily old birds, be it remarked, as young ones frequently show the
twist to an extraordinary degree. Taken on the average, the bills
of the greater proportion show the crossing to much the same
extent, although there are exceptions to this as to every other
rule. In connection with this peculiarity, Dr Bechstein, in his
interesting volume on ' Cage Birds,' relates a foolish superstition
prevalent in some parts of Germany, such as the Black Forest and
Thuringia. He states that the country people hold the Crossbills
in great regard, and often keep them in cages, not so much for the
purposes of pleasure as from the idea that the poor birds attract
diseases from the human frame to their own bodies, and in that

1 88 1 -82.] Edinburgh Nat7tralists Field Club. 27

way are supposed to be unfailing specifics in the cases of ej)ilepsy
and apoplexy, both of which afflictions are common among birds
deprived of their liberty. The insane idea is carried still further,
as they firmly believe that the specimens which have the upper
mandible crossed to the right side attract only the diseases peculiar
to men, and those whose bill crosses to the left are kind enough to
transfer to themselves the complaints of the opposite sex. Foolish
ideas with reference to the habits and faculties of birds are not
confined to Germany, however, the more illiterate of our own
countrymen retaining beliefs whose extreme silliness would be
ludicrous, were it not lamentable to think that such could exist in
an enlightened age like the present.

As previously stated. Crossbills usually travel about the woods
in flocks ; and so fearless and apparently careless of danger are
they on many occasions, that a person may climb up the same tree
on which the birds are feeding, and by exercising a little caution
may approach within a few feet of them, thus obtaining opportu-
nities of a closer observation than can be had of most other species.
It would appear from this that the presence of man has not the
same terrorising effect on this species that it has on most other
birds, but this must not be taken as an invariable rule by any
means, as at times they are unusually restive and difficult to
approach. To speculate on the cause of this vigilance would
almost be useless. The most probable explanation appears to be
that on these occasions the birds are about to shift their quarters,
and consequently, like other species previous to migrating, do not
seem inclined to settle down for any length of time in one place.
Other and simpler causes may be at work to account for their
restlessness, such as fear caused by being shot at, the close prox-
imity of Hawks or Owls, &c. But the effects of these do not last
long, as, after being fired at, they often return in a few minutes to
the vicinity of the spot just vacated.

When feeding, they speak to each other in a low chuckling sort
of note almost without cessation, but when on the wing they utter
a clear ringing sound quite unmistakable to any one acquainted
with the notes of birds. The song of the male is peculiar, and
rather low in the tone, but at the same time audible a long way off'
in calm weather, from the fact of his taking up a prominent position
on the top of a tree when vocally inclined, and in that way the
sound is not intercepted by the thick branches. His musical
abilities do not rank very high, but notwithstanding are not
unpleasant to the ear, and, what is of more importance to the
songster, are evidently appreciated by his feminine friends. The
females are said to sing also, which is not unlikely, as in a number
of species the song is not confined entirely to the male, — the Bull-
finch, for instance, being an example in point. One peculiarity

28 Transactions of tJie [Sess.

which I have noticed in the Crossbill while in confinement is his
warbling with his mouth shnt, the only indication of his being
so employed (saving the sound) being the puffing out at the
throat, accompanied with a tremulous motion of the body, and
a more apparent movement of the tail. In this case the sound
ekes out at the sides of his bill ; but when uttering the sharp
call-note, or singing loudly, the mouth is opened in the usual
manner.

Whei'e trees are high, Crossbills seldom come low down except
in winter, but at that time of year they often sit on the ground
and pick out the seeds from the fallen cones, besides alighting on
dykes or fences, should there happen to be any near at hand. It
is, indeed, a pleasant sight, and one possessing especial charms
for the naturalist, to observe a flock alight on the snow-covered
ground ; the bright red plumage of the males, and the scarcely
less beautiful green hues of the females, standing out in fine con-
trast to the pure and dazzling whiteness of the surroundings. On
these occasions they are apt to fall an easy prey to predatory boys,
whose propensities for stone-throwing and other acts of cruelty to
dumb creatures are matters of sufficient notoriety to need no com-
ment. The Crossbill is an eminently foolish bird, so far as ideas
of self-preservation are concerned, and when engaged dissecting a
cone will sustain a running fire of missiles with equanimity, until a
well-directed stone arouses it to a sense of its danger, when, alas !
it is too late to escape. Although it would hardly be imagined to
be the case, they live admirably in confinement, and with a little
care and attention can be readily tamed, so as to come out of their
cage when called, sit upon and feed out of the hand, and so on.
In fact, few wild birds {not even the Siskin or Bullfinch) make
themselves so quickly at home when in captivity. Some have
powers of imitation, and can copy the songs of other birds, such as
Canaries and Goldfinches, kept within their hearing ; but that
remark is only applicable to very young birds, old birds not being
so apt when their natural note has been confirmed. This faculty,
however, is no great rarity, being possessed in a greater or less
degree by many birds, notably Starlings, Blackbirds, Chaffinches,
and particularly Bullfinches. It is a curious circumstance, and one
which must strike every one who has taken the trouble to look
into the matter, that many species whose own songs are the
reverse of melodious make the best imitators ; and again, those
whose natural melody is very sweet seem unable to acquire the
notes of any other bird to anything like the same extent. This is
amply illustrated in the case of the Starling and Bullfinch, and
others might be instanced.

The plumage of the Crossbill is rather perplexing, as at different
seasons of the year, and at different ages, the birds show a variety

1 88 1 -82.] Edinburgh Naturalists Field Club. 29

of colours, causing a great disparity even in one flock The young
of both sexes are alike at first, speckled, and look like an ex-
aggerated specimen of a hen Siskin ; but after moulting some
turn green, and others red or carmine-coloured. Females ap-
jjarently do not vary so much as males, being of a uniform
greenish-grey tint, varying in intensity according to the season ;
but the latter are found donning a great variety of shades. Some
are very bright red, and others have the red subdued with an
admixture of yellow and green. The age of the bird and the time
of year in which it was born, no doubt, influence the plumage
considerably. For instance, one born in February ought to be
better plumaged in autumn than one born in May : perhaps, also,
the weather may have some effect. Birds in a cold, wet, and back-
ward season can hardly be so brightly j)lumaged as in a warm and
genial year ; so in judging of the plumage of the Crossbill, we
must take all these little items into consideration. Notwithstand-
ing the variations exhibited, none are of so marked a nature as to
lead an ornithologist to mistake a Crossbill for any other species,
the shape of the head and formation of the mandibles being suffi-
cient for identification. The common Linnet [Linota cannabina) is
another example of a bird assuming a variety of garbs, giving rise
in this case to a varied nomenclature slightly puzzling to the
young student of ornithology. Country people, in spite of their
opportixnities, are in the great majority of cases very ignorant
concerning bird-life, and are convinced in their own minds that the
grey, brown, rose, and whin Linnet are different species, whereas
they are identical. Young naturalists should be very chary of
accepting as fact the opinions of country people, as their notions
are generally crude, and very often erroneous.

The only other point now to be touched on is the construction of
the nest. Being usually well hid in a thick Spruce, it is not so
often found as would be imagined, considering the great numbers
of birds hatched every season. It is composed of small twigs of
the Larch, and lined with grass, moss, and fibrous matter, and on
the average is rather large, and inartistically constructed. One
which I had the good fortune to discover possessed the unusual
peculiarity of a semi-roof made of lichen-covered twigs, probably
added with an idea of sheltering the young. This formation would
seem, however, to be quite exceptional. While wandering through
the thick Fir plantations, such as exist in many parts of the High-
lands, one often comes quite unexpectedly upon an open space
surrounded on all sides by trees, probably in former times the site
of an old sawmill or forester's cottage long since decayed, and
leaving no trace behind save the grass-grown outlines of its
foundations. In such a spot the Crossbills love to congregate on
a warm sunshiny day, flying at intervals across the open space, —

30 Transactions of the [Sess.

their constant chirping betokening a sense of supreme happiness
and want of care to which human beings are entire strangers.

So far as a short paper is concerned, the more important features
of the species have been mentioned ; and as time would not permit
of further description, I shall only beg leave to say in conclusion,
that among the many examples of the feathered race to be found
in Great Britain, few are more curious or interesting than the
Crossbill ; and I feel certain that, should opportunity occur, any
one who spent an hour or two in watching their quaint habits or
in listening to their peculiar song, would not consider the time
devoted to such a purpose as wasted.

VII.—NOTE ON THE WALL-CREEPER {TIGHODROMA PHCENI-
COPTERA) AND A FEW OTHER BLRDS OBSERVED ON
A VISIT TO SWITZERLAND.

By Mr A. B. HERBERT.
{Read Jan. 26, 1882.)

If tourists are asked on their return from Switzerland whether
they noticed any rare birds there, the usual reply is that they
scarcely saw a bird m the country. I do not know how it may
be in the spring and early part of summer, but in the autumn,
when the country is most frequently visited by British tourists,
there is undoubtedly a paucity of bird life. I had the pleasure
of spending about a month in that charming and interesting coun-
try in August and September last, and in crossing France by rail,
the only rare birds noticed en route were Buzzards [Buteo vulgaris),
and these, though now extremely rare in Britain, are by no means
uncommon in France. You see them soaring about on buoyant
wings, or stationed on posts and other prominent places near the
railway. They feed on small mammalia and reptiles ; and not
being themselves fit for human food, seem to be left unmolested.
By a Frenchman, however, with gun in hand, birds of almost all
kinds, great or small, flying or sitting, are slaughtered indiscrimi-
nately, and eaten. One of my friends called on a Frenchman
who had a small quadrangular coiTrtyard, in which were a few
evergreens, and on two opposite sides of the enclosed space were
nets so arranged that, by pulling strings, the whole court could
be made a bird-trap. My friend was shown the catch of the day,

1 88 1-82.] Edvibiirgh Naturalists' Field Club. 31

put aside for cooking, and among many Sparrows, Greenfinclies,
and ChaflSnches, he observed two Wrens, a Titmouse, and a Kobin.
This is the kind of slaughter not uncommon in France, and we
cannot therefore wonder that the country is as a whole so uninter-
esting to ornithologists. When, however, we reflect that our Hur-
lingham is still an aristocratic and fashionable resort, and that a
dish of Dunstable Larks forms a dainty enire at our epicurean civic
and other feasts, we must not be too severe in condemnation of the
cruel practices of our Gallic neighbours.

A rather curious incident occurred on my railway journey across
France. A Hawk, about the size of our Sparrow-hawk, but with
plumage much the colour of a Woodcock, kept up parallel with the
train, and about fifty yai"ds distant, for many miles. When we
passed through plantations or in cuttings, we temporarily lost sight
of him, but on emerging, there he was still continuing his flight
near the train ; and I have a strong impression that he had found
by experience that the train disturbed small birds, which, in their
flight, became to him an easy prey. I am convinced that this
long-continued flight near the train was not accidental and with-
out an object. The only other bird at all rare seen by us in
France was a beautiful male Golden Oriole, and these birds, we
know, are occasional visitants to Britain, and would breed here if
left unmolested. They are sometimes seen near Paris.

The birds noticed by us in Switzerland which are rare in Eng-
land were the Black Kedstart [Phoenicara Tit/iys), the Nutcracker
[Nucifraga caryotactes), and the Snow-Bunting [Emherlza nivalis).
The Black Redstart in habits much resembles his congener, our
common Redstart. The Snow-Bunting we saw in large flocks near
the top of Pizz Langard, in the Engadine, at about 9000 feet ele-
vation. The Nutcracker is a large bird, with a flight much like
our Jay, and is common in many of the Pine woods, but close
observation of it is difficult amongst the dense Fir trees. In the
Upper Engadine, at an elevation of 6000 feet, this bird is frequently
met with among the Cembra Pines near the glaciers of the district,
and it is known at once, as it flies from tree to tree, by the con-
spicuous white tip to its tail. The plumage is brown, spotted
with white. It is a migratory si^ecies, feeding on worms, insects,
fruits, nuts, and seeds of Pines, and raps the trees to alarm the
insects, after the manner of our Woodpeckers. We were unfortu-
nate in not meeting with the alpine Accentor, a bird by no means
uncommon in Switzerland, and much like our Hedge - Sparrow,
except that its plumage is lighter and prettier ; and instead of
building in hedges, it forms its nest and lays its bright blue eggs
in holes and fissures of the rocks.

The bird, however, which most riveted our attention, and which
is quite unknown here, was the beautiful Wall-Creeper [Tichodroma

32 Transactions of the [Sess.

Phcenicopterd). I first saw this bird at Clmr, in the Grisons can-
ton. I was standing at the hotel door on the 28th August, when
a bird flitted by me which at once aroused my attention and curi-
ositj^, as it was clearly one I had never before seen. Its peculiar
jerking flight in the bright sun and clear Swiss atmosphere dis-
played its delicate grey body and brilliant crimson wings to the
greatest advantage. The wings have white spots on them, and
the tail is black tipped with white. It settled against the hotel,
and, clinging with its claws to the perpendicular wall, traversed
the whole length of the building with a creeping lateral motion,
which reminded me of our Nuthatch, and probed with its sharp-
pointed bill all the interstices between the stones in its search for '
spiders and their eggs, to which it is particularly partial, spread-
ing out very frequently its pretty and unique crimson wings. So
intent was the bird on its occupation that it allowed us to approach
close, and watch and admire it for some time. I could not find any
one there to tell me the name of the bird, beyond that it was called
the " Specht," which I thought might be synonymous with our
word " spectre," from the light colour of the bird; but it appears the
word " Specht " is used in Germany to denote both the Wall-Creeper
and also the Woodpecker. Afterwards, on visiting the museum at
Lucerne, I saw many stuffed specimens of this interesting subject
of our observation, and ascertained the correct specific name. A
few days afterwards, while walking from Airolo on our return from
the Italian lakes over the St Gothard Pass, and at a very high ele-
vation— indeed just as we were entering the clouds — another of these
pretty birds flew over my head, and settled in a fissure in a rock,
where I feel sure it had a nest, but the precipitous nature of the rock
forbade my great desire to examine the spot. The Wall-Creeper is,
I find, strictly European, and is found in mountainous districts in
all the middle and southern portions of the Continent, and frequents
the naked and precipitous parts of the most elevated mountains,
among which it is seen flitting from crevice to crevice in search of
food. It does not use the tail as a support, as our common Creeper
and Woodpeckers do, but clings with its tenacious claws unaided
to the rough rocks, in the same manner as our Nuthatch does to
the rough bark of trees. It moults twice in the year, in spring and
autumn. The two sexes are much alike in markings, excej^t that
after the spring moult the male assumes a black patch on the
throat. Crimson, I need scarcely remark, is a very uncommon
colour in the plumage of our indigenous birds. I can call to mind
only three which have this shade, and it is solely on their heads —
viz., the EedpoU, the Goldfinch, and the Woodpecker. With the
Wall-Creeper, however, crimson is the predominant colour ; and
its habit of so frequently expanding its beautiful' wings as it creeps
along the walls and rocks renders it a most attractive object, even

1 88 1 -82.] EdinbiirgJi Naturalists Field Club. 33

to those who are not ornithologists. I strongly advise any mem-
ber of our Club who may have the pleasure of travelling in Swit-
zerland to keep a sharp look-out for these brilliant birds. I cannot
think they are very rare, as during our short tour I saw two alive,
and many stuffed specimens in the Lucerne museum.

VIII.—NOTE ON THE MOUTH-ORGANS OF INSECTS.

By Mr ANDREW MOFFAT, Secretary.

{Bead Jan. 26, 1882.)

*

The object of this note being solely explanatory of a series of
microscopical preparations which was exhibited in illustration of
the various forms of the mouth-organs of insects, it is not thought
desirable to reproduce it here.

The mouth-organs of the following insects, among others, were
shown — viz. :

Telephorus dispar, Blatta orientalis, Forficula auricularia, Acheta
domestica. Apis mellifica, Bombus terrestris, Vespes vulgaris, Musca
vomitoria, Eristalis tenax, Khingia campestris, Pieris Bi'assica?.

IX.— MIMETIC PLANTS.
By Mr JOHN LINDSAY.

{Read Feb. 23, 1882.)

There is no more interesting chapter in Natural History than
that which treats of the outward resemblances found to subsist
between genera or species far removed from each other in natural
relationship. The term popularly adopted to describe this curious
phenomenon is not entirely satisfactory, but it is the simplest which
has as yet been suggested. Mimicry, or the power of imitation, is,
in the general acceptation of the word, a voluntary act, with no
serviceable end, as a rule, in view, and which, being voluntary,
can be assumed or laid aside at pleasure. But when applied, as
in this instance, to plants or animals, the term " mimicry " must
be taken in a metaphorical sense to express an external appear-

VOL. I. c

34 Transactions of the [Sess.

ance unlike tliat belonging to its own class, and like that of another
class, — such resemblance, further, being ostensibly adapted to sub-
serve some useful purpose, whatever that purpose may be. This
phenomenon has hitherto been investigated to a much greater
extent in the Animal Kingdom than amongst plants. Mr H. W.
Bates, who first introduced the subject to public notice, and subse-
quently Mr Alfred E. Wallace, have both been diligent workers in
this interesting field, and many curious facts have already been
brought to light. It may perhaps tend to a clearer understanding
of the subject in hand — viz., mimetic resemblances in plants — if a
glance is taken at some of the analogous conditions which obtain
in the Animal Kingdom.

Among the many ways by which quadrupeds, birds, and insects
are believed to maintain their existence is that of concealment by
obscure or imitative tints or colours. On this theory an explana-
tion is given of wild Babbits always having grey or brown tints ;
of arctic animals possessing white fur; of desert animals being
desert-coloured ; and of the desert birds of Asia and Northern
Africa — such as the Stonechats, Larks, and Quails — being tinted
and mottled to resemble the soil of the districts where they are
found. Taking an example or two from the birds of our own
country, we at once call to mind the Ptarmigan, with its white
plumage in winter and its pearly-grey summer dress, harmonising
with the lichen-covered stones where it is generally found. The
Woodcock is a still better example of imitative tints, in the browns
and yellows of fallen leaves being reproduced in its plumage, and
rendering its resting-place under trees such a safe one. But these
resemblances are perhaps found to their greatest extent in the
insect world. Mr Wallace, in his ' Contributions to the Theory of
Natural Selection,' tells us that "in the tropics there are thou-
sands of species of insects which rest during the day, clinging to
the bark of dead or fallen trees ; and the greater portion of these
are delicately mottled with grey and brown tints, which, though
symmetrically disposed and infinitely varied, yet blend so com-
pletely with the usual colours of the bark, that at two or three feet
distance they are quite undistinguishable." And he remarks further,
that these tints of the bark or leaf are not only reproduced in the
wings of many insects, but that " the form and veining of the leaf,
or the exact rugosity of the bark," are also imitated. The ex-
amples of the so-called " Walking -leaf " and "Walking-stick"
insects are so familiar, that a passing reference to them will be
sufficient.

Such resemblances, however, though undoubtedly something
more than mere curious coincidences, are not the only phenomena
claiming our attention here. The mimicry of animals which has
its fittest counterpart in that of plants is not so much a likeness

1 88 1 -82.] Edinburgh Nahiralists Field Clnb. 35

in colour or tint — though that also is found — as in outward appear-
ance. It is at once a resemblance to an entirely different groiip,
and a want of resemblance to closely allied groups ; so that it has
been well remarked that such imitators "appear like actors or
masqueraders dressed up and painted for amusement, or like
swindlers endeavouring to pass themselves off for well-known and
respectable members of society." Examples of this kind of imita-
tion exist particularly amongst the Lepidoptera, where we find
that they not only mimic each other, but also other insects, as
Bees and Wasps ; and at least one tropical Moth is said to
resemble closely a Humming-bird. There are fourteen or fifteen
species of the Sesiida? or " Clear-wings " in this country, and each
is named after some other insect whose uniform it wears. Exactly
the same kind of simulation is found to exist amongst Beetles ;
and Mr Bates further mentions a Caterpillar which at first sight
startled him, and deceived even his practised eye, by its close re-
semblance to a poisonous Viper. Were this paper treating of the
mimicry of animals, and not that of plants, much might have been
added on this fascinating subject ; but any wishing to pursue it
further will find much to interest in Mr Wallace's book already
mentioned. Having thus prepared the way, we will now pass on
to observe some instances of this same law of mimicry amongst
plants.

Mimicry in plants may be divided into two kinds : it may either
be general — that is, of the whole habit or mode of growth ; or it
may be special, consisting in the development of so:ne particular
organ or part, as the leaf, the flower, the seed or fruit, and even the
odour. Examples of the first kind — viz., of resemblances in habit
— and of foliage resemblances in the second, are perhaps the most
numerous, and may be treated of together, leaving out of sight, for
the present occasion at all events, flower, fruit, or other resem-
blances. It is well known that there are plants in every Natural
Order which might easily be taken as belonging to some other Order.
The late Mr W. Wilson Saimders of Reigate repeatedly exhibited at
the soirees of the Linna^an Society paired specimens of mimetic plants
belonging to entirely different Natural Orders, yet resembling one
another in their habit and general appearance to so extraordinary
a degree, that even a good botanist, it is affirmed, might well have
been excused for passing them over as identical. It is a fact
familiar to many, that Sir William Hooker once figured and de-
scribed a New Zealand Veronica (F. tetragona), without fruit or
flower, as a Conifer. Dr Hooker, in his ' Flora Antarctica,' draws
and describes a most singular species of Caltha (C Dioncefolia), the
leaves of which are almost an exact reproduction of those of the
well-known " Venus's Fly-trap." Again, such an authority as
Kunze pronounced a Cycad {Stangeria 2^«r«c?oa:a), after an ex-

o

6 Transactions of the [Sess.

amination of the nature and venation of the leaf, to be a Fern. On
comparing some of the weird - looking American Cacti with the
African Euphorbias, they are found to be wonderfully alike. The
curious thing here is, that both the columnar or branched and the
globular forms of Cacti have their representatives in the Euphor-
biacefe. But let us take a few illustrations from plants nearer
liome. One example is the rare Menziesia ca^rulea, which is so
like the Crowberry {Empetrum nigrum) that the one may easily
be mistaken for the other. The Equiseta, or Horse-tails, it has
been remarked, find their echoes in the Hippuris, which is a flower-
ing-plant. Dr M. C. Cooke, in his ' Freaks and Marvels of Plant-
Life,' figures a composite plant {Azorella Selago) which is extremely
like a Lycopod. A similar example is Thujopsis la^tevirens, a
Conifer, compared with such a Lycopod as Selaginella Lyallii.
Two Rosaceous plants — Alchemilla alpina and Potentilla alche-
milloides — have their foliage identical ; as have also Eumex san-
guisorbfefolia, belonging to the Polygonea?, and Sanguisorba offic-
inalis, one of the Rosacea. Many familiar names, suggesting like
similarities, will readily recur to memory — as Polygonum Convolv-
ulus, Solanum jasminoides, Arenaria serpyllifolia, and so on.
A curious Veronica (F. salicornioides) has lately been introduced
from New Zealand by Isaac Anderson Henry, Esq. of Woodend.
The plant — of which tliere are several specimens in the Royal
Botanic Garden— has never yet flowered in this country, and there-
fore doubts have been entertained as to its really being a Veronica,
though on that point competent judges are quite satisfied. Its
striking similarity to a Conifer may be easily seen on comparing it
with Cupressus Lambertiana or Dacrydium Franklinii, both belong-
ing to the Coniferae. Again, we saw above two forms of Cacti repro-
duced in two Euphorbias; but a still more striking example of mimet-
ism is furnished by three shrubs, two of them possessing a varie-
gated form, and all three, in the normal type, nearly identical, though
presumably with no genetic relationship. One is Osmanthus illici-
folius, a member of the Oleaceae or Olive family ; the second is
Desfontainea spinosa, belonging to the Loganiaceaa ; and the third is
the Common Holly [Ilex aqidfoliiis) — N. 0. Ilicinefe. To give but one
illustration more : there are two plants which are so like dwarf
Palms, that in nearly every nurseryman's catalogue — and indeed
in some works of much greater pretensions — they are classed under
that heading. Yet neither is connected with the Palmje. One is
Carludovica palmata, belonging to the Pandanaceee or Screw Pines ;
and the other is Curculigo sumatrana, a Hypoxidaceous plant, allied
to the Amaryllids. Let us place each of these plants alongside of
a Palm leaf. Carludovica palmata may be paired with Livistona
chinensis, the one seeming to be a variety of the other, and each as
decidedly Palm-like in habit as its neighbour. Curculigo sumatrana

1 88 1 -82.] EdinburgJi Naturalists Field Club. 37

may have for partner Cocos flexuosa, in its juvenile stage. This form
the Palm preserves for about the first three years of its growth,
when the more mature leaf assumes a pinnate character. The two
plants are so identical, that one may readily be led astray re-
garding them. These illustrations may suffice as evidence in proof
of the statement, that there are to be found amongst plants, as
well as in the Animal Kingdom, similarities of outward appearance
between groups naturally far removed in many instances from one
another. Such abnormal departures fi-om the ordinary type ought
to be kept in view by geologists when naming fragmentary speci-
mens of fossil plants.

What, then, we may now ask, is the reason for one plant thus
assuming the appearance of another ? — and how is the resemblance
brought about? It cannot all happen by mere chance, for n9,ture
never works in that haphazard fashion. As a partial answer to the
latter question, such resemblances among quadrupeds, birds, and
insects — whether to other living creatures or to inanimate objects —
have been accounted for by the theory of natural selection and
the " survival of the fittest." But, of course, a deeper cause must
exist in some occult law of their being, which we may never be
able to comprehend. Then as to wliy such resemblances exist, —
by a large induction the conclusion has been arrived at, that in
the Animal Kingdom, at all events, such mimetism, whether of
form or colour, or both, seems to afibrd protection from enemies,
either where the habits of the " mimic " expose it to special
danger, or where it is not sufficiently endowed with more effective
means of escape. We hesitate before applying a similar reason for
the existence of mimicry in plants. For what, it may naturally
be asked, does the plant gain in the way of protection ? — or what
does it require protection from? The only instance where this
reason for the phenomenon has been hazarded is in the case of
the Menziesia ceerulea already mentioned — a plant as yet found in
Scotland only on the Sow of Athole, in Perthshire, and but sparingly
there. As the Crowberry grows very abundantly beside it, the
remark has been made that the rare plant is thus protected " from
the rapacity of botanists " ! Passing over the problem, then, as to
why these resemblances exist in the Vegetable Kingdom, by simply
saying that these forms are the best suited for the requirements of
the plant, and asking next liow they have come about, the following
theories have been advanced. As one explanation, we have the
law of consanguinity or heredity put forward, — though, remembering
the widely separated families in which the resemblances have been
found, this plainly cannot meet all the requirements of the case.
Again, similarity of conditions has met with some favour as an operat-
ing cause. Resemblances in habit are, no doubt, often due to similar

38

Transactions of the

[Sess.

conditions of soil and climate. And when long generations are
conceded in order to adapt a plant to its environment, one can
easily understand how the change from the normal type might be
great indeed. This explanation is, however, at best a partial one,
and does not at all account, besides, for resemblances in special
organs, as in fruit or flower. Hybridisation has been adduced as
probably a concurrent cause ; but this theory is naturally beset
with so many difficulties, that it has not met with much favour.
The last resource has been to take refuge in the pre-Darwinian
doctrine of Design as an answer to the whole diiSculty, and to
suppose, with Mr A. W. Bennett, that there is in all this some
purpose *' not in every case for the immediate advantage of the
individual species, but in furtherance of some plan of general har-
mony which it may take centuries of unwearied and laborious toil
before we discover the key by which we may be able to unlock it."
This idea seems at first blush a very plausible one ; but a little
reflection soon shows that it is most unsatisfactory as an explana-
tion, for it simply defers any attempt at a solution to a very
indefinite period. We cannot expect that the conclusion here
arrived at will receive general acceptance ; and it is to be hoped
that some other interpretation of the mystery which will meet all
the necessities of the case will by-and-by be forthcoming.

By the Mndness of Mr Sadler, Curator, Royal Botanic Garden^
Edhiburgh, the following plants were exhibited in illustration of
the above paper : —

Menziesia cserulea,
Empetrum nigrum,

Thujopsis Ijetevirens,
Selaginella Lyallii,

Potentilla alchemilloides,
Alchemilla alpina,

Veronica salicomioides,
Dacrydium Franklinii,

Osmanthus illicifolius,
Ilex aquifolius, .

EricacesB.
Empetraces3,

Coniferce.
Lycopodiaceas

Rosacece.
Rosacege.

Scrophulariacece.
Conifers.

Oleacese
Ilicinea3,

:\

(Green and variegated forms of both shrubs.)

Curculigo sumatrana, .
Cocos flexuosa, .

Carludovica palmata, .
Livistona chinensis, .

Hypoxidacese.
Palmae.

Pandanaceas
Palmse.

i

1 88 1 -82.] Edinburgh Naturalists Field Club. 39

Cereus niger, ..... Cactacere. )

Euphorbia sp., ..... Eupliorbiaceai. )

( Columnar form. )

Mammillaria Dolichocentra, . . Cactacese. \

Euphorbia melliformis, . . . Euphorbiacete. \

(Globular form.)

X.—AGOTYLEDONS, MONOCOTYLEDONS, AND DICOTYLE-
DONS: THEIR MORPHOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

By Mr WILLIAM LUNDIE.

(EeadFeb. 23, 1882.)

The two questions discussed were —

(a) What are the distinctive characters by which these three groups

are recognised?

[b) On what grounds did Jussieix claim for this classification the

title Natural ?
Q. I. The distinctions are of two kinds, — morphological, i.e. such
as have reference only to form ; and physiological, i.e. such as have
reference to function. The morphological distinctions become quite
apparent when we contrast the Fern, the Lily or Palm, and the
Rose, as representatives of the three groups. The absence of what
would represent the aerial stem of the Rose, the peculiar form of
the frond, and the total want of anything resembling a flower, are
characters which strike tis as peculiarly characteristic of a Fern.
Again, the branching of the stem in the Rose, its woody character,
the number of floral envelopes (two — calyx and corolla), the number
of parts (five) in each, and the character of the embryo, clearly
separate it from the Lily or Palm, which have an unbranched stem
(caudex), a single floral envelope of six parts (Lily), and a single
cotyledonary embryo ; while none of these characters are possessed
by the Fern. The physiological characters are equally marked,
and are connected with the functions of nutrition and reproduction.
The nutritive organs are those by which the life of the plant is
maintained, and consist, in the lower forms of vegetable existence,
of a thallus, and, in the higher forms, of root, stem, and leaf. The
reproductive organs, on the other hand, are those by which the
species is perpetuated, and consist of spores in the lower forms, and
of a flower and fruit in the higher. The greatest diversity in those

40 Transactions of the [Sess.

nutritive organs is to be found among Acotyledons. This class
includes such organisms as the Alga3, Fungi, and Lichens, whose
nutritive organs consist of a single cell, or of an expansion of cellu-
lar tissue — the thallus ; but in the higher forms of Acotyledons,
such as Mosses, Ferns, Club-mosses, «S;c., structures resembling in
general form and function the root, stem, and leaf, are distinctly
marked, which thus approach the Monocotyledon and Dicotyledon
type. The greatest differences are seen when the structure of the
stem and leaf of each of these three classes is compared. The
structures themselves are composed of the same elements, but differ
in the mode of their arrangement. Eoughly, we distinguish in the
stem of a Dicotyledon, such as a Maple or Pine, three portions, —
an outer bark portion, an inner wood, and a central pith portion.
More strictly, however, the bark consists only of the outer layer of
cells, which have become corky, within which lies a green cellular
rind. Between this green cellular rind and the jDith lie what are
termed the Fibro-Vascular Bundles, consisting for the most part of
wood and bast, the latter lying exterior to the wood. A transverse
section of the rhizome of a Fern exhibits an arraiagement of these
bundles in the form of an irregular circle, while in that of a Cane
or Palm they are scattered irregularly in the abundant pith ; and in
the Maple, Pine, or Eose they arrange themselves in collateral
wedges, so that the wood forms a circular band, which broadens
each year, enclosing a central pith, and coated externally by the
perij^heral bark. As a rule, bark is only present in Dicotyledons.
Its absence is a characteristic mark of Monocotyledons, The vena-
tion of the frond of the Fern is forked ; in the Monocotyledon, par-
allel ; and in the Dicotyledon it is reticulated. Two other points of
distinction need only be mentioned, as they give rise to terms of
no uncommon occurrence. The first is that of the growing point
[punctum vegetationis), and the consequent development of the stem;
and the other is derived from the character of the root. In certain
Acotyledons (not, however, universally) the growing point consists
of a single apical cell, from the repeated subdivisions of which
stem, roots, &c., originate, and hence they are spoken of as Acro-
gens; while Monocotyledons and Dicotyledons are distinguished as
Endogens and Exogens respectively. From the character of the
root, these three were again distinguished as Heterorhizal, Endo-
rhizal, and Exorhizal respectively.

But the chief peculiarities of these three groups lie in their repro-
ductive organs. In Monocotyledons and Dicotyledons reproduction
is effected by what are termed Flowers, hence^the name Phanero-
gams applied to these two classes. In contradistinction to this,
Acotyledons, which have no such conspicuous flowers, have been
termed Cryptogams, a term which refers to its hidden or secret
method of fertilisation. Dicotyledons are generally distinguished by

1 88 1 -8 2.] Edinburgh Naturalists' Field Chib. 41

the possession of two outer floral envelopes, the calyx and corolla, of
four or five parts each, marked generally by a difference in colour, the
calyx as a rule being green. These surround the essential organs
of the flower, the stamen and pistil or pistils, which are generally
correlated in number to the parts of the calyx and corolla. In
Monocotyledons, as a rule, there is no difference between calyx and
corolla — at least, as regards colour. There is one floral envelope
of six parts, in two alternating whorls, of which the three outer
may be taken to represent the calyx, while the three inner repre-
sent the corolla. The various parts of the flower represent a ter-
nary arrangement, quite distinct from the quinary or quaternary
arrangement of Dicotyledons. These two may be contrasted by
setting side by side their typical floral formulas, thus —

Dicotyledons, . . 5 S. 5 P. 5 A. 5 G.

Monocotyledons, . . 3 + 3 P. 3 -f 3 A. 3 G. •

It is, however, in the character of the embryo that the essential
distinction in the reproductive organs lies. Within the coat of the
seed, such as the Pea or Bean, representing Dicotyledons, are two
hemispheroid masses placed face to face with each other. These
are the cotyledons or seed-leaves, the primary nutritive organs,
being in fact storehouses of nourishment for the young embryo.
Dicotyledons, as the name implies, possess two of those seed-leaves,
while Monocotyledons possess only one. Acotyledons is a ques-
tionable term, inasmuch as it indicates a negative character. It
denotes the absence of cotyledons — reproduction, as already stated,
being effected by spores. In its higher forms it presents the pecu-
liar reproductive phenomenon of an *' Alternation of Generations."
This is well seen in a Fern, from the spore of which a prothalliinn
is produced which leads an independent life. From this prothallium
tlie reproductive organs, antheridia and archegonia, are developed,
which, by a true process of fertilisation, in turn give rise to the
spore-bearing Fern.

G. II. These three groups, founded on the primitive nutritive
organs in the seeds, represent the natural classification of Jussieu ;
and it is not a little interesting to trace the varioiis steps by
which he arrived at such a classification, and its claim to the title
" Natural." The honour of distinctly defining what a true classi-
fication of the Vegetable Kingdom should be, is due to an English-
man, John Eay (1703). He maintained that a true classification of
the vegetable forms of life is one which exhibits a gradation from
the lower forms to the higher, and thus becomes the expression of
the plan observed in nature in the creation of living things. From
this, it would appear, arose the term " natural," conti-asting with
other classifications which were termed " artificial." Ray, how-

42 Transactions of the [Sess.

ever, left it to be more fully developed by a Frenchman, Antoine
Laurent de Jussieu. Born at Lyons in 1748, and educated at
Paris under his uncle Bernard de Jussieu, he was, when compara-
tively young, appointed to the office of Demonstrator in the
Jardin des Plantes. In attempting to classify the plants of the
garden according to the artificial classification then in use, he
became thoroughly dissatisfied with it, and was led to consider
what a true classification ought to be. When he discovered Eay's
definition of a classification, he entirely adopted it, and worked it
out to greater perfection than Eay himself had done. He found
that, though the true aim of a classification had been reached,
there was considerable diversity of opinion as to the means of
arriving at such a classification. The aim of this classification
being to arrange the vegetable forms in allied species, their
principle was, " That species which are dissimilar should not be
brought close together, nor should species that are similar be kept
apart." This gave rise to the question, " What is to determine
similarity or dissimilarity ? " The advocates of the artificial
classification selected each a certain organ arbitrarily, and classified
according to the similarity or dissimilarity of that organ. They
differed greatly as to the organ which they selected. Andreas
Cgesalpinus (1583) chose the character of the fruit ; Dr Morrison
of Aberdeen (1670), the character of flower and fruit; Tournefort
(1684-1700), the character of the corolla; and last of all, Linn^us
(1778), the character of stamens and pistils. Jussieu held that it
should be determined by natural distinctions alone, and was the
first to lay down the principle that affinity could only be deter-
mined by correspondence in structure. This is a natural deduction
from the axiomatic truth, " If any two plants be alike in every
point in their structure, then these two are identical." Hence he
defined a species to be, " Individuals which are very much alike
in all their parts, retaining their resemblances from generation
to generation." " Those species," he said, " are to be associated
which correspond in the greater number of their characters ; but
one constant is of more importance than several inconstant char-
acters." For example, the stamens and pistils are more constant
characters than either the calyx or corolla, either or both of which
may be absent, and hence of greater value as a basis of classifica-
tion. It was this fact that made the classification of Linneeus of
more permanent worth than any other artificial classification.

But Jussieu, in order to establish a gradation, had to discuss the
relative values of the constant structures, — " the determination of
which," Lindley says, " is the pivot on which the operation of any
systematist must turn." He pointed out that the relative value of
any structure must depend upon the function which that structure
performs ; and that as the existence of a plant depends on its

1 88 1 -82.] Edinburgh Naturalists' Field Club. 43

vegetative or nutritive organs, these must possess the highest
relative vahie, and will afford characters of a primary distinction.
Next in importance he placed the organs with which the plant
cannot dispense if its race is to be preserved — viz., those of repro-
duction, since nutrition is antecedent to and finds its ultimate end
in reproduction or the perpetuation of its species. In this way
Jussieu was led to adopt the primary nutritive organs — the
cotyledons — as the structures which present the highest relative
value, and whose structural differences, being of primary import-
ance, afford the first and best characters on which to base a classifi-
cation. Acotyledons, Monocotyledons, and Dicotyledons are thus
founded on those characters of the embryo which are of the widest
distinction, and yet exhibit a gradation from the lower forms to
the higher, conforming to the principle of a natural classification
enunciated by Eay, The simplest and lowest types of structure
in the vegetative organs is to be seen among the Cryptogams or
Acotyledons, where, in many cases, a single cell carries on both
the functions of nutrition and reproduction ; while, a stage higher,
we have cells combined to form a tissue — the Thallus. The
highest differentiation of cells, and the most complex nutritive
process in the embryo, is observed among Dicotyledons ; while in
Monocotyledons it represents an intermediate stage.

In illustration of the above paper, the following preparations
were shown under the microscope — viz. :

1. Transverse section of Acer of the first, second, and third year's

growth, and one or two abnormal forms, — all representing
Dicotyledons.

2. Transverse section of Sugar-Cane, Euscus, and Dracfena,

representing Monocotyledons.

3. Transverse section of Pteris (Fern) ; apical longitudinal sec-

tion of Chara, showing growth ; Prothallium of a Fern
with antheridia and archegonia, — all representing Acoty-
ledons.
Besides these, there were hand-specimens to show their morpho-
logical characters.

44 Transactions of the Edin. Nat. Field Club. [Sess, 1881-82.

XL— NOTE ON THE BOOSTING OF THE PEREGRINE FALCON
ON THE SPIRE OF ST MARY'S CATHEDRAL, EDINBURGH.

By Mr EGBERT STEWART.

{Head Feb. 23, 1882.)

I THINK it may be interesting to the members of the Chib to learn
that for some time past a Peregrine Falcon has regularly taken
up its night quarters on one of the small ornaments near the top
of the spire of St Mary's Cathedral. I first noticed the bird as it
came along Melville Street, and on this, as on all subsequent
occasions, it flew on a level with the tops of the houses until it
reached the Cathedral, when a few steady strokes of its wings
enabled it to occupy its high perch. The ornament referred to
is not protected in any way, and it is as astonishing to consider
how it managed to retain its footing during the recent storms, as
it is to find it there at all.

L— NOTES ON THE NOMENCLATURE OF
BRITISH MOSSES.

By Me JOHN WALCOT, President.

{Bead Oct. 27, 1882.)

The Moss plant, in its perfect state, consists of roots, stem, leaves,
fruit-stalk, and seed-vessel. These parts vary more or less in size,
colour, shape, and condition ; and the earnest student must make
himself familiar with all these varieties, if he would make any real
progress in the knowledge of Moss life. Several distinct pecu-
liarities mark off the Moss plant from other parts of the vegetable
kingdom. Its leaves have no footstalk, and are attached at their
lower edge to the stem ; some of them are serrated at the margin,
but none of them are divided and compound, as those of many other
plants are. Their surface is free from everything like hairiness ;
they do not decay and fall off from the stem, and, as a result of this
enduring character, do not remind us of our frailty and destiny as
do the falling leaves of other plants, for they may be kept for
months, and even years, and retain the power of reviving when
placed in water.

In the early stage of his studies, the student's attention will be
sure to be arrested by the singular fact that the slender stem,
called the seta, on the summit of which the seed-vessel rests, in
some Mosses projects from the summit of the plant, and in others
from the side of it. This distinct peculiarity has very properly
been fixed upon as the first means of division. All Mosses are
classed under the terms Acrocarpi and Pleurocarpi, — the one ac-
curately describing fruit from the summit, the other fruit from the
side. In later synopses a third term, Cladocarpi, has been adopted
to describe some plants whose fruit-stalk, being on short lateral
branches, appears to be lateral, though in reality it is terminal.
The capsule, or seed-vessel, of the Moss plant, as a rule,
possesses a small lid called the operculum, a beautiful fringe
about the mouth called the peristome, and a thin covering or
veil over the upper part of it which is called the calyptra. In
Moss life, as well as in other things, this general rule has its ex-
ceptions. A few Mosses have no operculum ; a few others have
no peristome, while of those which have it, in some the circle of
fringe is single, in others it is double. Tliese exceptions have
been made the bases of other divisions which are as accurately
expressed as those which are based upon the position of the seta.
Hence in the progress of nomenclature we have the following :

VOL, I. D

46 Traitsactions of tJie [Sess.

Astomi, without a mouth ; Gymnostomi, nated at the mouth ; and
Peristomi, with a fringe at the mouth. Under this last division
there are two others — Aploperistomi, with a single circle of fringe ;
and Diploperistomi, with a double circle. From such facts as
these, it is obvious that in the early stages of study it will be a
comparatively easy thing to assign Moss plants their proper position
in the system of nomenclature. With so many easily recognised
characteristics and clearly defined distinctions, the student may
arrange his treasures, and store them away in safety till he can
secure the time necessary for more minute examination, and for
endeavouring to discover the grounds of their generic and specific
names.

In considering the origin of family and generic names, we soon
find out that they cannot be traced to any one part of the plant
exclusively. The generally accepted nomenclature can be traced
up to many sources. Some parts of the plant, as, for instance, the
organs of fructification, supply a greater number of names than
others ; but this honour does not belong to them alone. Modern
authors of distinction have done a great deal to change and modify
the names. They have designated some in a more scientific manner,
and have distributed one or two of the largest families under other
titles, but they have not abandoned the older titles altogether :
these are retained as the general designations, under which those
newly invented are arranged. Considerable differences exist in the
modern synopses, and at present it is impossible to say whether
any one of them will supersede the older arrangements and names.
The object aimed at in the present paper requires that we should
mainly refer to those names which have become familiar to us
through standard authors. This nomenclature proceeds along two
general lines, distinct from and unlike each other.

I. One proceeds upon the acknowledged existence of some pecu-
liarity in the plant itself, — either in its habit, or nature, or organs of
fructification. HypnacefB, the largest family, derives its name from
a supposed natural property to induce sleep. It is probable that this
property consists rather in their soft and feathery character than in
any chemical virtue. If so, there are other Mosses that might claim
the same title with equal right. Why the one class has been
chosen and the other not, we cannot say ; but let no one complain
of this. The feathery Mosses afford an elysium of delight to the
eye and to the touch. On their down-like bed the most skeleton
forms of human life may rest in ease and comfort. The names of
some genera are taken from their habit of growth — as those called
Fontinalis, which grow in streams, and probably those called
Splachnum, which chiefly grow on the fa3ces of animals. Others
derive their names from a peculiarity of the fruit-bearing stalk

1882-83.] EdinburgJi Naturalists Field Cliih. 47

[seta], as Funaria hygrometrica, which in dry weather becomes so
twisted that it resembles a piece of rope. Many others derive
their names from some peculiarity in the veil [calyptra), as Poly-
trichum, many-haired, hairs lying flat on the calyptra as if it were
thatched. Also Orthotrichum, straight-haired, the upper part of
the calyptra being covered with hairs all projecting ujDwards. This
same principle of designation is freely adopted in later synopses,
where you find the names Atrichum, Antitrichum, and Oligo-
trichum. Another name, Glyphomitrium, describes a calyptra
furrowed or sculptured ; and the name Encalypta describes the
seed-vessel as within the calyptra, and hidden by it, and hence is
known by the name Extinguisher-moss. Other Mosses derive their
names from differences existing in the j^^ristome, and include a greater
number than any other family does. We need not wonder at this,
for the peristome exerts an important influence in the propagation
of the plant. It not only affords protection to the spores when tlie
lid falls off, but disperses them when they are matured. This deli-
cate and sensitive part of the plant is wonderfully fascinating.
When once the beauties of the peristome open to the mind, the
desire to investigate them becomes wellnigh irresistible. The seg-
ments of which this fringe is composed conform to a singular law
of numbers, the number being either four or a multiple of four,
— never less than four, never more than sixty-four, and never includ-
ing any intermediate numbers excepting sixteen and thirty-two.
Of the plants which derive their names from this source, we men-
tion Dicranum (forked teeth), Cinclidotus (teeth with lattice-work
at base), Tortula (twisted teeth), and all those which in the older
and in the more recent nomenclature end in some form of the Greek
word odous, a tooth — as Amblyodon, Ceratodon, Cyrtodon, Didy-
modon, Orthodontium, Leucodon, Leptodon, and Zygodon. These
examples suffice to show that all muscologists have regarded the
peristome as possessing a strong claim to furnish names for the
plants.

II. The second general principle which has been observed in
designating Mosses is altogether different from that we have con-
sidered. That described something about the plant itself; this has
its origin in the human element as it is related to the plant, — either
identifying the plant with the person who was fortunate enough
to discover it, or acknowledging eminent service in the study of
muscology, or doing honoiir to those who have expressed generous
sympathy with those who have pursued this branch of science
under difficulties. Hence some of the choicest Moss plants, in the
names they bear, perpetuate the memory and service of distinguished
men. There are at least ten of this class. Three of these repre-
sent Britain, one America, one Flanders, and five Germany. The

48 Transactions of the [Sess.

three Britons are George III., tlie Rev. Joseph Dalton, and Sir
William Hooker. The Mosses known by the name Georgia boast
of a name derived from a monarch whose reign is conspicuous in
British history. The main facts of George III.'s character and reign
may not be estimated alike by us all ; but all will rejoice that the
cares of his anxious life were relieved by botanical studies, and
that his royal influence was sometimes exerted to encourage those
who, under difficulties, were devoting their energies to the study
of botanical science. The knowledge of these facts is adapted to
quicken our sympathies with the monarch, and to deepen our
interest in the history of his life. The Rev. Joseph Dalton is the
only clergyman who had the honour of having his name embalmed
in the older nomenclature of British Mosses. Not a little that is
favourable may be inferred about him from the fact that this honour
was conferred upon him by Hooker and Taylor, and that Sir Wil-
liam Hooker named his son Joseph Dalton Hooker. This honoured
man, we may hope, was not less efficient as a minister of the Gospel,
because he was a distinguished botanist. The study of plant life
is not incongruous with the study of the Scriptures, or with faithful
service in the kingdom of Christ. He who knows most of the
great works of God in nature, possesses an unfailing fund of
illustration by which he may impressively enforce the highest
duties and privileges of men. Side studies relieve the pressure
of professional toil, and strengthen for its patient endurance.

If we linger over the third British name, Sir W. J. Hooker, we
shall be excused by the eminence he attained, and by the value of
his contributions to botanical literature and research. It was a
fortunate circumstance that this Norwich-born lad possessed such
a love of nature, that the energies intended for trade were diverted
from it and consecrated to the study of plants. He was persuaded
to do this by Sir J. E. Smith, to whom he applied for the name of
a rare Moss. One circumstance occurred very early in his history
which gave promise of a great life, because it revealed the exist-
ence of greatness in youth. When about twenty-four years of age,
he was returning from Iceland, laden wdth specimens of its plants
which he had collected there, and with many drawings and notes
respecting them which he had made. In a storm all these treas-
ures were lost, and his life was placed in great jeopardy. The
great sorrow which Sir Isaac Newton experienced was tasted by
him, though from a different cause and under different circum-
stances. But by a toil which knew no fatigue, by a memory such
as few possess, and by an elasticity of spirit which rose above
every discouragement, he succeeded in reproducing all that part of
his work which was of special value to botanical science. Can we
be surprised to learn that, shortly after accomplishing this great
eat, he began to collect a herbarium which became celebrated as

1882-83.] Edinburgh Naturalists' Field Chib. 49

the finest in Europe? or to find him associated in special work
with such men as Taylor and Greville and Berkeley, who at that
time were in the zenith of their fame ? Hooker's power of work
was something altogether unique, and extended over a long period.
Monuments of his toil still have a conspicuous and enduring char-
acter : they are the pyramids of botanical literature, and having
them before our minds, we are not surprised at the honours which
were heaped upon him in his professional life. From the Chair of
Botany in Glasgow, he rose to the directorship of the celebrated
gardens of Kew, and afterwards was decked with the garland of
knighthood, which he wore with modesty and grace, amidst a large
circle of congratulating friends. The plant selected to bear his
distinguished name is worthy of it : Hookeria lucens is well known
to every muscologist, and is a special favourite, as under the micro-
scope it is exquisitely beautiful.

The American continent is represented in the subject we are
now considering by only one name, but that name is a " tower of
strength." John Bartram flourished from the beginning of the
eighteenth century, nearly to the time of Hooker's birth in 1785.
He belonged to the good old-fashioned, drab-suited, broad-brimmed
Quakers. He had a passion for plants from his youth, which mani-
fested itself not only in searching for them and examining them,
but in planting and nursing them. It was said of him by a friend
that he would ride fifty or a hundred miles to get a new plant.
This fact shows what metal he was made of. He who does not
cheerfully endure fatigue, and hunger, and self-denial, if needs be
risk, in this work, is not worthy the name of a botanist. It was on
the banks of a river near Philadelphia that Bartram founded his
garden, which really was the first botanical garden in America.
He planned it, laid it out, and filled it with plants chiefly collected
by himself. This self-taught man literally made the world wonder
at his success. The great Linneeus said of him that he was the
greatest natural botanist in the world — a testimony which we may
readily accept, coming as it does from such an authority. George
III. appointed him as " American Botanist" to himself — an appoint-
ment which conferred as much honour on the monarch in giving it
as it did on the man who received it. This man, Bartram, has
fallen asleep, but his spirit and energy have been perpetuated in
others. He goes marching on through the wide world. The tastes
he gratified, the pleasure he imparted, the knowledge he diffused,
and the successes he achieved, were all as so much choice seed
cast into the soil of national life, and which to after generations
have yielded a golden harvest.

I cannot now give particulars respecting the six continental
names abeady mentioned : they are the names of men whose memo-
ries will be cherished by muscologists to the end of time. Some

50 Transactions of the [Sess.

one has said of J. G. Hedwig that he was the prince of musco-
logists ; but this might be said also of Necker and of Weissius, of
Timm, of Grimm, and of Buxbaum, — they were princely in their
gifts, in their workings, and in their successes. Dr Buxbaum's
passion for work led him to spend months at a time in the forests,
and on the mountains of Jena, and resulted in his being entrusted
with the care of the Koyal Gardens of St Petersburg by the Czar
of Russia. Opportunity was thus secured for prosecuting that
careful work in Eussia, in Turkey, in Siberia, and Astrakhan, with
which his name is inseparably connected. It was Linneeus who
consecrated to his memory that singular little Moss, Buxbaumia
aphylla.

IL—ON A SPECIMEN OF GYRACANTHUS OBTAINED FROM
THE CARBONIFEROUS LIMESTONE SERIES AT BURGH
LEE.

By Mr T. STOCK.
{Communicated Oct. 27, 1882.)

I HAVE much pleasure in giving, at your Secretary's request, a
short accouait of the GyracanthuSj obtained during our pleasant
excursion to Straiten.

Large and well-preserved fragments of the skeleton of sharks are
exceedingly rare in carboniferous rocks. JSTevertheless, we know
from the spines and teeth that the waters of that age were tenanted
by an abundant selachian fauna, of which perhaps the most for-
midable genus, both from its numbers and its size, was Gyracan-
thus. The late Messrs Hancock and Atthey, the eminent Northum-
brian ichthyologists, have contributed some of the most important
observations yet made on that fish, and the Burgh Lee specimen is
confirmatory of their conclusions. From the scattered though
abundant material at their disposal they sought to establish the
following points : 1, That certain Gyr acanthus spines are paired,
and most probably pectoral spines. They grounded this on the
fact that the apical extremity in many specimens had lost its point,
and was worn down smoothly at an angle, and that this wear was
always on the side opposite to the point of attachment. Fm-ther,
they observed that in these specimens there was some lateral as
well as antero-posterior curvature — that there were right and left
spines. Moreover, they found " large flat triangular bones
frequently associated with the spines, measuring sometimes
8-| inches X 6| inches wide at the widest part," which they re-

1882-83.] Edinburgh Naturalists Field Club. 5 1

ferred as carpal bones to the slioulder girdle. 2, They referred
to the skin certain patches of minute tubercles.

Turning now to the large fragments from Burgh Lee, we find that
there are the remains of two spines, one of them measuring 16 inches
in length, the other a mere fragment of 4 inches. They lie with very
little post-mortem disturbance. The apices nearly touch in the same
plane, the bases are widely divergent, and between them are the re-
mains of the carpal bone, so-called, of Messrs Hancock and Atthey.
This bone is triangular; its longest measurement is 6| inches,
its broadest probably 4| inches : a little bit is broken off from
one edge, but it is very nearly perfect. It presents the same
appearance of loose texture as seen in the Northumberland speci-
mens, and is undoubtedly the same bone. One or two detached
bones have likewise occurred to me in the Wardie Shales. It is
therefore satisfactory to find this bone so intimately associated
with the spines (in a specimen which has undergone scarcely any
disturbance), that any doubt lingering in one's mind, caiised by the
presence of such an extensive ossification in a usually cartilaginous
skeleton, has no excuse for being any longer entertained.

The larger and nearly perfect spine has a short base of attach-
ment, and the area of attachment at the back of the spine is not
symmetrically divided, but has a greater development on one side
than on the other, giving the spine the appearance of being twisted.
This, the lateral curvature, I suppose, of Messrs Hancock and
Atthey, is evidently due to its being a paired spine. The same
specimen, too, is much worn at the apex. The wearing begins
3J inches downwards from the broken-off point, passes gradually
into a deeply excavated groove, which again passes into a smooth
terminating area, from which all traces of ridges and tubercles have
disajDpeared. This wear is, as in the Nortliumbrian specimens, on
the anterior aspect of the spine.

The evidence is therefore cumulative, that we have here the
remains of the pectoral region of a large shark. The two spines
are of the species known as Gyracanllius tuherculatus, Ag., and they
do not differ from each other in the slightest degree in size or
ornament. They are, however, right and left, as was to be expected.
A glance at any part of the specimen (in the proper plane) behind
the spines, reveals the presence of the dermal tubercles. They are
a good deal scattered. Whether they were found on other parts of
the animal than the fin is uncertain, though probable. One finds
patches of them occasionally with no spines near. They certainly,
however, formed a dense coating on the surface of the fins, as a
beautiful specimen in my Wardie collection sliows.

At this meeting a series of fossil sections, including transverse

52 Transactions of the [Sess,

and longitudinal sections of the spine of Gyracanthus, were shown
under the microscope by Mr James Simpson. Mr G. M. Brotherston
also exhibited a number of British Butterflies, and made some re-
marks as to their localities.

ANNUAL BUSINESS MEETING.

The Annual Business Meeting of the Club was held on the even-
ing of the 23d November 1882. The Secretary and Treasurer's
Statements were submitted to the meeting, and office-bearers were
elected for the Session. After the election of President, Vice-Presi-
dent, Secretary and Treasurer, and four Councillors, in room of those
retu-ing, the office-bearers for Session 1882-83 will stand as under,
viz. : —

President.— A. B. Herbert. Vice-President. — P. B. Gibb.

Arch. Craig.
James Simpson.
John Lindsay.
Hugh H. Pillans.

Council.

T. B. Spkague.
John Heggie.
Chas. F. Robertson.
W. Tait Kinnear.

Robert Thomson.
George Bird.
Robert Stewart.
Dr L. Dobbin.

Auditors. — Alex. Matheson ; J. A. Brodie.
Secretary and Treasurer. — Andrew Moffat.

The financial statement showed an income, including balance from
previous year, of £47, 3s. 2|d., an expenditure of £23, 10s. 4|d.,
leaving a balance in favour of the Club of £23, 12s. lOd. At this
and the previous evening meeting in October, the Secretary read
extended reports of the meetings held during 1881-82 ; but owing
to the available space being required for other communications, it
has been deemed advisable only to reproduce the introductory
paragraph here : —

The following meetings have been held during 1881-82, viz. :
Evening Meetings — 20th Oct. 1881, First Evening Meeting; 23d
Nov., Annual and Second Evening Meeting ; 22d Dec, Third
Evening Meeting; 26th Jan. 1882, Fourth Evening Meeting; 23d
Feb., Fifth Evening Meeting ; 7th April, Conversazione. Field
Meetings, viz. : 18th Feb., Arniston (1st excursion) ; 25th Feb., Ar-
niston (2d excursion); 29th April, Straiten; 6th May, Cm-rie ; 13th
May, Auchendinny; 20th May, Borthwick Castle; 27th May, St
David's ; 3d June, Pressmennan ; 7th June, Craigmillar ; 10th
June, West Linton ; 17th June, Caribber Wood ; 21st June, Liber-
ton ; 24th June, Leslie ; 28th June, Pioyal Botanic Garden ; 1st
July, Peebles ; 8th July, Balerno ; 19th July, Blackball ; 22d July,

1882-83.] Edinbitrgh Naturalists Field Chib. 53

Gullane ; 9th Sept., Colinton ; 16th Sept., Musselburgh, — m all
26 meetings, with an aggregate attendance of 848, or an average of
over 32 at each meeting. As compared with Session 1880-81 with
the same number of meetings, the Session just closed shows an
increase in the aggregate attendance of 225. During the past year,
1 1 members have withdrawn their names from the roll, and one has
died ; 34 new members have been added to the roll, making a net
increase of 22 members. As showing the progress of the Club, it
may be well to state that in 1873 the published list showed a mem-
bership of 69 ; in 1878 the number had fallen to 60 ; in 1879 it was
64 ; in 1880, 69 ; in 1881, 88 ; and in 1882, 110.

At this meeting a rule was adopted by which Corresponding
Members would be admitted to the Club.

In connection with the Secretary's Keports, Miss Craigie -pre-
pared a series of notes on the geological features of some of the
localities visited, which were read at the March meeting, and which
will be found in their place.

IIL—RESTALRIG CHURCH— A MONOGRAPH.

By Mr THOMAS A. DOUGLAS WOOD.

{Read Nov. 23, 1882.)

The village of Restalrig is very ancient : its date is uncertain.
The Parsonage is known to have existed as far back as the death
of Alexander III., which took place in 1286. Its former names
were Lestalrig, Listalrike, and Lochsterrock. The owner of the
barony used to take the same name. It would seem that at an
early period it was an independent parish lying between Dudding-
ston and Leith, and the hamlet was at the same time the seat of a
not inconsiderable establishment, being in the honourable position
of kirk-town of South Leith. From early records we find that in
1296 Adam of St Edmunds, the parson of the parish, swore fealty
to King Edward of England ; and during the siege of Leith in
1560, Holinshed states that "the Lord Gracie, lieutenant of the
Inglis armie, ludged in the town of Lestalrike, in the dean's house,
and the most pairt of their demilances and horsemen lay in the
saym towne." The church itself is believed to be also of ancient
origin, as it was celebrated for the tomb of St Triduana, a noble
virgin who came from Achaia in the fourth century along with St
Rule, and died here. It i;sed to be resorted to by many pilgrims,
and numbers of miracles were believed to be accomplished by its
aid, especially in the healing of the eyesight.

54 Transactions of the [Sess.

As already referred to, the lands belonged to a family bearing
the same name in the early period of its existence. They passed,
however, about the fourteenth century, to the Logans, through mar-
riage, in the reign of Robert I. , whose descendants held them till
1604, when they were sold to Lord Balmerino, secretary to James
VL, whose descendants in turn possessed them till the Stuart rebel-
lion, when they were confiscated, and handed over to the Bute
family in 1746. These Logans seem to have figured somewhat
conspicuously in the annals of history, and to one of the earliest of
their branches does Edinburgh owe its large share in the manage-
ment of the Leith Docks — indeed the superiority over Leith itself.
It might, therefore, be not uninteresting to refer shortly to some of
the principal events in their history. The name Logan appears
first in the documents of the realm about the twelfth year of Alex-
ander II.'s reign. The principal family of the name was given of
Lastelrig, commonly called Lasterrick. Sir Eobert married a
daughter of Eobert IL, and he granted in May 1398 a charter to
the city of Edinburgh while he was Admiral of Scotland, allowing
it the exclusive right to certain waste places in the vicinity of the
harbour of Leith for the erection of quays, wharves, shops, and
granaries. In 1413 he made another one, this time restricting the
Leith folks from carrying on any trade, or keeping inns for strangers,
thereby giving to the city the whole monopoly of trade. In 1421
he acted as one of the hostages for James I. In 1441 we find that
one John Logan, a son or grandson of the former, was made High
Sheriff of Edinburgh by James II. The superiority of Eestalrig
was sold to Mary of Lorraine in 1555. The last to whom Eestalrig
belonged seems to have been a scapegoat. In some of the early
traditions he is described as a " profligate and debaussit man." In
1580, by marriage to a daughter of Sir P. Home of Fast Castle, he
became its proprietor. On account of outlawry for participation in
a highway robbery, he hid himself here in 1596. In the same year
he sold his estate of Nether Gogar to Logan of Coatfield, and, as
we have seen, the barony of Eestalrig to Lord Balmerino in 1604.
It seems he was in a way implicated in the famous Gowrie con-
spiracy, although his complicity was not found out till after his
death, which took place in 1606. Two years thereafter, a man,
George Sprott by name, was tried, found guilty, and executed for
his share in the conspiracy, and the evidence on which the convic-
tion stood was merely a letter found in his possession written by
Gowrie to Logan. Although noAV dead, the authorities, according
to an old law, gave orders for the exhumation of his bones, which
were duly brought into Court to receive sentence of confiscation and
outlawry. Many people of the name of Logan changed it, although
they were unconnected with the family, so great was the ignominy
attached to it. A younger son fled to France, where he joined the

1882-83.] Edinbicrgh Naturalists Field Club. 55

army. Having a quarrel with Garson, a favourite of the kiuf^'s,
they fought it out, resulting in the death of the Frenchman. Hav-
ing to quit the country immediately thereafter, in case he should
suffer death for his deed, young Logan once more arrives in Scot-
land. He was obliged to live a quiet, obscure, and retired life,
on account of the stain on his name. Few could be found will-
ing to associate themselves with him. Tradition asserts that it
was he who, while so living, became acquainted with Tibbie Fowler
of the Glen, immortalised in Scottish song, and, in spite of her
father's objections, succeeded in cai'rying her off as his prize. It
seems a house stood in the Shirra Brae, opposite the Coalhill, up
to 1840, but was then removed, that was pointed out as the one
in which they afterwards lived.

James III. seems to have taken a great fancy for this retired
nook, for he established a collegiate apart from the old parsonage,
and endowed it along with Lasswade. The establishment consisted
of, besides the church, a " ludging " for the dean, and " chambers or
manses with yardis and lands " for his prebendaries. James IV.
augmented it by the addition to the foundation of eight preben-
daries, who were endowed with the rights of titles in various parts
of the country. James V. finished what was left uncompleted by
the father, when he appointed a dean, nine prebendaries, and two
singing-boys, the whole being dedicated to the Virgin and Trinity.
In the year 1661 the following was the rental of the parish, as
given in a return sent to Government : " The Fruits of the Deanery
of Restalrig as it pays presentlie and commonlie their divers yiers
bygane, with the parochin of Lesswaide and Glencorss — 25 chal-
ders, 8 bolls, 2 firlots oats ; 8 chalders, 6 bolls, 2 firlots bear ; 2
chalders, 13 bolls, 1 firlot wheat ; 1 chalder, 3 bolls, 2 firlots rye ;
along with £43, 6s. 8d. Scots." The manse and glebe were feued
for the yearly sum of £47, 6s. 8d. Scots.

Somewhere near the year 1490, if not in it, the church of South
Leith was built, and through time many of the inhabitants of the
village began to go there ; but it was not till the year 1560,
when the first General Assembly met after the Eeformation, that
an Act was passed condemning the church at Restalrig, and pro-
hibiting service therein. The words of the Act read as follows :
" Finds that the ministrie of the Word and Sacrament of God, and
the assembly of people of the haill parochin of Restalrig, be within
the Kirk of Leith, and that the Kirk of Restalrig, as a monument
of idolitrie, be razed and utterly casten doun and destroy it." The
name of John Knox is the first adhibited to this Act, and those of
David Lindsay, minister, Andrew Lamb, and Patrick Boyman, are
appended as representatives of Leith. It would seem that the
wishes of the Assembly were soon to be gratified, for we find the
following notice in the " Diurnal Occurrents " of 1571 : " The Lords

56 Transactions of the [Sess.

and Captain of the Castle causit big ane new port at the Nether
Bow, within the auld port of the samyne, of aisler wark in the maist
strengthene maisoner : and tuik to big the sayme with all the aisler
stanis that Alexander Clark had gaderit of the Kirk of Kestalrig to
big his hous with." The Legislature themselves passed a statute
in 1609, the 25th chapter of which runs thus : " Understanding
that the Kirk of Restalrig is ruinous, and that the Kirk of Leith
has been the place of the convening of the parochines of Eestalrig
the space of fyftie ziers past, as alswa that it is most commodious,
pairt in respect that the toun of Leith is the greatest pairt of the
said parochin, whilk kirk notwithstanding has never yet been
erected in ane paroch kirk." Further on the Act proceeds to
declare " that the said Kirk of Leith be ane paroch kirk, and ordains
to be repute, and called heirafter the paroch kirk of Leith, and all
the inhabitants of Eestalrig to resort thairto as unto thair paroch
kirk as they have dune in tymes past ; and that the beneface par-
sonage thairof, gleib and manse pertaining thairto, shall be always
desponit to the minister serving the cure at the said Kirk of Leith
in all tyme coming : and that the said Kirk of Eestalrig be sup-
pressed and extinct from henceforth and for ever."

The choir only now remains of this once famous and important
edifice. It is of the Early English Gothic description, and, though
small, is very neat and clean. It can scarcely date further than
the fourteenth century. Its roof is high, and very beautifully
decorated. On its walls are monuments to Dr Andrew Wood, and
Louis Cauvin, the founder of the hospital at Duddingstone, whose
remains lie just outside the door. It was rebuilt and renovated in
1836, through the instrumentality of Dr Chalmers and the Church
Extension Committee, according to plans executed by William
Burns, Esq. It was arranged that the second minister of South
Leith should always occupy the pulpit on the Sabbath at least
once a-day. Since, however, Dr Mitchell has been appointed, and
the dual charge ceased, he has contrived to make the villagers
assist in maintaining, if not altogether maintain, a minister of
their own. In 1557 John Knox wrote of Mr John Sinclair, then
the Dean of Eestalrig, afterwards Lord President of the Court and
Bishop of Brechin, as possessing so impartial a bearing to others
that some thought him '' not far from the kingdom of God." For
himself, he thought " that as he was blynd of ae e'e in his body,
he had lost baith in his saul."

The burying-ground is very interesting. It is kept, as many of
the old country churchyards are, in a fairly tidy manner, — the cus-
tom of having the graves kept level with the borders, however, not
being yet introduced. The sexton and beadle — a man over eighty
years — is intelligent, a hale old man for his years, and very com-
municative, relating stories regarding the families whose grounds

1S82-83.] Edinburgh Naturalists' Field Club. 57

he kept. At the time Episcopacy was overthrown in Scotland, the
burying-ground was extensively used as a place of sepulture for
the families and deposed clergy of the order, on account of a pro-
hibitory notice issued against the reading of a service in the city
and suburban burial-grounds. For this cause Alexander Rose, the
last Established Episcopal Bishop, was in 1720 interred here. The
monument over his grave has recently been renewed, and he is rep-
resented in full size, wearing his mitre, and having his crosier in his
hand. Here lie the remains of Lord Brougham's father and family,
and, as previously mentioned, of Louis Cauvin, the founder of the
Hospital at Duddingston ; Lord Wood, a senator of the Court of Jus-
tice ; and the recently deceased Dr Andrew Wood's ground is here.

I must not, before closing, forget to mention a curious mausoleum
annexed to the church, and which may at one time have been
part of the old edifice. According to our friend the beadle, this is
called the Earl of Moray's vault, who succeeded to the possession
of the lands. There is at this time nothing to be seen inside save a
stone, bearing to be in commemoration of the Lady Mary of Eestalrig.
It is half broken, and owing to the darkness of the place the whole
inscription cannot be followed. From a description of this curious
place I have been privileged to read, belonging to the Architectural
Association of Edinburgh, it would seem that the biiilding of it is
ascribed to Sir Robert Logan, who died in 1441 ; and the opinion is
expressed there, that from its antique form it might date much
further back, and was perhaps a private chapel of St Triduana her-
self. The roof is ornamental in character, the same as the church,
and is supported by a very massive carved pillar.

There once stood somewhere near the site of St Margaret's
Station, at the junction of a cross-road leading to Holyrood, a well
dedicated to St Margaret. It was protected by a handsome arch,
supported by two columns. From this pure spring the monks
were supplied with water. In course of time, however, the build-
ing was demolished and the well almost covered up, to enable the
station there to be erected. A few years ago, through the exer-
tions of the late Dr David Laing and the Society of Antiquaries,
the well was removed and the water conducted to the Queen's
Park, and now stands enclosed by a gate a little south of the
Palace, on the road to St Anthony.

Having long had a desire to visit Restalrig, that desire has not
till very lately been gratified. My visit over, curiosity which had
previously been aroused was whetted, and I felt that I must for
myself dip into its history. What information I obtained I jotted
down as notes for my own use, and I have now ventured to give
them to you, in the hope that I may be imparting to some such an
interest in a church so close to their own dwellings as may induce
them to pay a visit, however short, to that village.

58 Transactio7is of the [Sess.

IV.— SOME NOTES ON BE MAINS OF THE GREAT AUK OR
GAREFOWL {ALGA IMPENNIS, L.\ FOUND IN EX-
CAVATING AN ANCIENT SHELL-MOUND IN ORONSAY.

By Mr SYMINGTON GRIEVE.

{Read Nov. 23, 1882.)

It may be perhaps rather difficult for some of you to understand
that any special interest can attach to what appear to be such un-
interesting objects as the few bones now before you. But they are
worthy of notice because they belong to a bird whose history, if
carefully written, would read like a romance ; and the pen of the
ready writer could put down in black and white the story of some
scenes in the life of the race that, told with pathos, might bring
tears of sympathy from hearts of stone.

The last of the Great Auks has, we believe, lived and died, end-
ing its existence at the hands of its ruthless and oftentimes cruel
enemy, mankind ; and now the remains of this bird are prized
because so rare, especially those that have been, found in Britain.
What are now before you we obtained from an ancient shell-mound
on the island of Oronsay, one of the Southern Hebrides, during the
month of June 1881 ; and as this is only the second place where
such remains have yet been found in Scotland, they have excited
some interest, and having been brought under the notice of the
Fellows of the Linneean Society, London, they have had them
figured, along with a woodcut of the shell-mound,^

I have also to submit a woodcut ^ of the Great Auk, which I
have carefully compared with the stuffed skins of the bird in the
British Museum, London, as also with those in York Museum,
and it is a most accurate picture, and decidedly superior to any
other figure of the Great Auk that I know of.

It may be as well to mention that it is stated that some remains
of this bird were found in a cave near the sea -coast of county
Durham ^ a few years since ; and through the kindness of Mr John
Hancock, Newcastle-on-Tyne, who examined all the remains from
this cave, we have ascertained that only one bone of the Great
Auk was found, and that was an upper mandible.

1 " Notice of the Discovery of Remains of the Great Auk or Garefowl (Alca
impennis, L.), on the island of Oronsay, Argyllshire," by Symington Grieve.
'Linntean Society's Journal' — Zoology, vol. xvi. pp. 479-487, and Plate IX.

2 Woodcut which appeared in ' The Century,' August 1882.

3 'Natural History Transactions of Northumberland and Durham,' vol. vii.,
Pt. 2 (1880), pp. 361-364.

1882-83.] Edinburgh Naturalists' Field Chib. 59

This is the first instance of the occurrence of any remains of this
bird in England that we have heard of. But it is to be hoped that
further search in both England and Scotland may yet recover from
the shell-mounds, kitchen -middens, and cave - dwellings of the
ancient inhabitants of our country more bones that belonged to this
interesting and extinct bird. We can hardly expect to find any-
thing like a complete skeleton in the European region that it in-
habited, though such have been obtained from mummy Great Auks
found in the frozen deposits of guano on Funk island, off the coast
of Newfoundland ; ^ but it is worthy of note that almost all the
remains of this bird that have been found in the European shell-
mounds are duplicates of the same bones of its body, which were
those that were thickest and hardest, such as the lai-ger bones of
the wings and legs. It is probably to this that we owe their pre-
servation, as they were best able to resist the ravages of time and
ex2:)osure.

The habits of the Great Auk appear to have led it to frequent
those isolated situations where, under ordinary circumstances, it
would be free from molestation by man, as its want of the power
of flight made it so helpless when on land. It is unfortunate that,
perhaps owing to this instinctive retirement from places of human
existence,^ we know really so little regarding it. One of the best
descriptions that we have is that by Martin, who, writing of St
Kilda, says : " The sea-fowl are first the Gairfowl, being the state-
liest as well as the largest sort, and above the size of a Solan
Goose, of a black colour, red about the eyes, a large white spot
under each, a long broad bill ; it stands stately, its whole body
erected, its wings short, flies not at all ; lays its ^^^ upon the bare
rock, which, if taken away, she lays no more for that year. She is
whole-footed [web-footed], and has the hatching spot upon her
breast — i.e., a bai-e spot from which the feathers have fallen off with
the heat in hatching ; its ^^^ is twice as big as that of a Solan
Goose, and is variously spotted — black, green, and dark. It comes
without regard to any wind, appears the first of May, and goes
away about the middle of June."

The Great Auk appears to be first mentioned as occurring in the
American region by Sebastian Cabot ^ in 1497 or 1498, and it was
soon greatly valued as food by the early voyagers to those waters,
as it could scarcely fly, and was so stupid or fearless, when on
shore, that it allowed itself to be driven on board the vessels in
immense numbers, by merely stretching sails or planks of wood

^ 'Annals of Natural History,' third series, Pt. 14. 'Proceedings of
Zoological Society, London,' 10th November 1863.

2 'A Voyage to St Kilda, May 29, 1697,' by M. Martin, Gent. Pub-
lished in London, 1753, p. 27.

^ 'Hakluyt's Voyages,' vol. iii., 1810 (Sebastian Cabot).

6o Transactions of the [Sess.

from the ships to the shore ; and we need not wonder that it has
been exterminated, especially when we remember that the female
birds only laid one ^^^ each year.

For a long period the Great Auks, or Penguins as they were
called in the American locality, were so numerous that mariners
frequenting those seas depended upon them as the principal source
of provision for their ships ; and it is probably not much more than
a century since the merchants of Bonavista used to sell these birds
to the poor people by the hundred-weight instead of pork.

Our knowledge of what were its breeding-places may be defec-
tive ; but it seems the following are historically well attested, —
viz., St Kilda, Faroe, and the three Garefowl Eocks off the coast of
Iceland. Then we have to go west to the east coast of North
America, where, in the neighbourhood of Newfoundland, it was met
with on Funk and many other islands, also on some of the islands
in the Bay of St Lawrence, and at Cape Breton ; while another
station on the same coast at which it probably occurred was Cape
Cod — and this seems to have been near the southern limit of the
region in which the bird lived. We find it gradually diminished
in numbers at all the American breeding-places, until, finally, early
in the present century, it altogether disappeared ; and although we
have one or two notices of its being observed in American waters
between the years 1830 and 1852, when the last notice occurs, it
does not appear that any of these occurrences are fully authenticated
by those who report them. In the European region it lingered a
few years longer ; and it is not difficult to recount its recorded occur-
rences during the present century, but we shall only refer to a few
of these. Its last authenticated occurrences in British waters are
as follows : Two specimens, a male and a female, were killed at
Papa-Westray, one of the Orkney islands, during the year 1812.
The skin of the female bird was so destroyed that it was unfit for
stufiing ; but that of the male bird is now in the British Museum,
and is the finest skin they possess. Early in the summer of 1821
a specimen was caught alive at St Kilda ; and coming into the
hands of Mr Maclellan, a tacksman of Glass or Scalpa, one of the
Northern Hebrides, it was by him given to the Eev. John Fleming,
D.D., minister of Flisk, afterwards Professor Fleming of the New
College, Edinburgh, on the eve of his leaving Glass in the yacht
of the Commissioners of Northern Lighthouses, 18th August of that
year.^ This bird was fed on fresh fish, and allowed occasionally to
sport in the water, with a cord fastened to its leg to prevent escape.
Unfortunately it got away when the yacht was near the entrance
to the Firth of Clyde, as it was being allowed to take its usual
bath.^ There appears to be some evidence that this bird afterwards

1 'ProceedingsoftheSociety of Antiquaries of Scotland,' vol. ii.,N. S.,p.441.

2 ' Edinburgh Philosophical Journal,' vol. x., 1824.

1882-83.] Edinburgh Naturalists Field Club. 61

died, and that its body was cast asllore at Gourock.^ Of all the
specimens, perhaps more has been written about this one than any
other, but we have no space for a longer notice. In May 1834, two
Great Auks were captured near the entrance to Waterford harbour,
and one of these is now preserved in the Museum of Trinity Col-
lege, Dublin, but the other was unfortunately destroyed, through
the ignorance of its captors.- This is j^robably the last authentic
recorded occurrence of this bird on the British coasts ; but it is
stated that two were seen in Belfast Bay during 1845,^ — and this is
worthy of note, as, if it is correct, it is a year later than the date
at which the last Great Auks were killed on Eldey, off the coast of
Iceland.^

It is recorded that several Great Auks were, from time to time,
seen or caught on the French side of the English Channel ; Ibut
they were all observed early in the century.^ A dead bird is said
to have been found near Fredericksstad, in Norway, during the
winter of 1838.^

The station, however, at which Great Auks lingered longest was
Iceland, where they had several rocky skerries on which to breed
that were difficult of access from the stormy sea with which they
were surrounded. But by a volcanic subsidence that occurred in
1830, their principal breeding- station, named the Geirfuglasker,
situated off Reykjavik, disappeared beneath the waves, and imme-
diately afterwards a colony of these birds appeared at Eldey, a
skerry which lies much nearer the main island ; and it was here
that a number of specimens were got, until what is believed to
have been the last pair of living Great Auks were killed at the
beginning of June 1844,^ and their intestines and other internal
organs are now preserved in the Royal Museum, Copenhagen.* But
what became of their skins, bones, and other remains, appears to be
unknown.^

As far as we have been able to ascertain, the known remains of
the Great Auk may be totalled as follows : skins, 72 (or 74 '?) ; skele-
tons, 9 ; number of birds represented by detached bones, 90 (or

1 'Birds of the West of Scotland,' R. Gray (1871), pp. 441-453.
'^ Thomson : ' Birds of Ireland,' vol. iii. p. 238.
3 Ibid., p. 239.

* "The Garefowl and its Historians," in 'Natural History Review,' 1865
(Prof. Newton).

^ 'Degland Ornithologie Eur.,' vol. ii. p. 529. Also M. Hardy's 'Cata-
logue des Oiseaux de la Seine-Inferieure.'

6 " The Garefowl and its Historians," in 'Natural History Review,' 1865,
p. 469 (Prof. Newton).

7 Mr J. WoUey's Researches. 'Ibis,' vol. iii. (1861) p. 392.

^ 'Proceedings of Royal Society, Edinburgh,' 1879-80, p. 679 (Robt. Gray,
Esq.).

• Videnskabdige Meddeleser, 1855, Nos. iii. -vii. Prof. Steenstrup's Paper,
p. 78.

VOL. I. E

62 Transactions of the [Sess.

93 ?), calculating the remains" obtained from Funk island by Pro-
fessor Milne as representing 50 birds ; eggs, 67.

We hope these few notes may have proved interesting ; and if
within any of you there has been aroused an interest in this extinct
bird, we shall have ample excuse for having extended them rather
beyond what we intended.

v.— ON A SPECIMEN OF THE POISONOUS LIZARD OF MEXICO
{HELODEBMA HORBIDUM, WEIGMANN).

Exhibited, with Remarks, by Mr R. J. HARVEY GIBSON, M.A.,

November 23, 1882.

The Heloderm is a native of the hottest part of Mexico, bordering
the Gulf of Tehuantepec. It is further limited in its distribution to
the dry parts of that region, being entirely unknown on the Mexi-
can Gulf side. It is nocturnal and terrestrial. Its saliva, which is
copious and of gluey consistence, is poisonous to small animals.
The teeth, like those of poisonous serpents, are perforated by a
canal distinct from the pulp cavity, but no special poison-gland
has been discovered in connection with the teeth. Its hide is of
extreme beauty, being of a creamy buff, with dark brown markings
arranged in a definite pattern. The fact of its possessing poisonous
powers, taken along with its known preference for eggs as food,
gives rise to the question. What use is the poison to the animal ? It
has been long known that human saliva, if concentrated, possesses
poisonous properties ; and the recent researches of M. Gautier of
Paris have demonstrated the existence of sulpho-cyanide of potas-
sium in saliva, of the young especially. It is of considerable in-
terest to find that man is not alone in this peculiarity, while, in
addition, it suggests a possible explanation of the origin of poison-
glands generally. The specimen will shortly be mounted in the
Science and Art Museum, to which it has been presented by Mr
Patrick Geddes — by whose courtesy Mr Gibson was enabled to
show the specimen to the club.

VI.— BEES AND BEE CULTURE.

By Mr A. B. HERBERT, President.
[Read Dec. 22, 1882.)

These insects, and their instincts and habits, have from remote
ages engaged the thoughts and consideration of many eminent

1882-83.] Edinburgh Naturalists' Field Club. Gi

naturalists, and volnmes upon volumes have been written respect-
ing them. I propose to treat the subject thus, — first, glancing at
Bee literature, and the natural history of Bees ; then their various
species, both indigenous and introduced, and the habits of the in-
sects ; then to enumerate some of the flowers most frequented by
them ; afterwards to consider their enemies ; and afterwards their
natxiral and artificial habitations, combined with such general re-
marks as may occur to me.

Among the early writers on the subject we have Aristotle, born
381 years before the Christian era ; Virgil, born seventy years be-
fore Christ ; and Pliny the elder, who lived about the time of our
Saviour ; and afterwards a learned Spaniard, Columella, who wrote
his ' De Ee Eustica ' in the first century.

Virgil wrote very fully on Bees, and I will give a few literal
translations from the Fourth Georgic. He says : " First, a proper
station must be sought for the Bees, to which winds have no access ;
and let lizards with speckled backs be kept far away from the rich
hives ; and woodpeckers, and other birds, and the swallow, whose
breast is stained with blood, — for these birds create great havoc,
and in their beaks bear away the Bees while on the wing, sweet
morsels for their merciless young. But let clear springs and pools
edged with green moss be near, and let green cassia, and far-smelling
wild thyme, and strong-scented savory, and beds of violet, be near
the spring." He also mentions, as favoiirable to the insects, " the
glowing crocus, the gummy lime, and the purple hyacinth ; " and
he states that " the life of a Worker-Bee is not prolonged beyond
the seventh summer." But if he had said the seventh month, he
would have been far nearer the truth. Virgil also tells us tliat,
while their king is safe, all live in perfect harmony ; but on his
death they dissolve their union : that he is their guardian, — they
buzz around him, and in vast numbers protect him. He also states
that Bees often take up little stones to steady them in their flight,
as unsteady vessels do in a rough sea. This, no doubt, is in allu-
sion to the balls of pollen carried by the insects in the peculiar
cavities in their hind legs. It is pretty clear that Virgil knew but
little of the true natural history of Bees, or the internal economy of
the hive, and was not even aware that the principal Bee was a
female, for he speaks of her throughout as a king : and as there
were no glass hives in those times, his remarks were restricted to
the results of external observations. But Virgil had observed that
there were two species of Bees then, as now, in Italy, — namely, our
common black Bee [Apis melUfica), and the Italian or Ligurian, or,
as it is often designated, the Alp Bee [Apis Ligiistica) ; and he
very truthfully mentions the latter as the preferable species,
where he says " there are two sorts of bees — one glowing with
refulgent spots of gold, and conspicuous by its glittering scales ;

64 Transactions of the [Sess.

and this is the better species." It is clear that these remarks apply
to the bronze colour of the anterior folds of the abdomen in the
Ligurian, which is the distinguishing characteristic of the species.
Coming down to a later period, we have Tusser, — old Tusser,
as he is called, — who lived in the sixteenth century, and wrote
* The Five Hundred Points of Good Husbandry,' who has a curious
couplet on the position of beehives. He says : —

" Set hive on a plank, not too low, on the ground,

Where herb with the flowers may compass it round ;
And boards to defend it from north and north-east.
From showers and rubbish, fi'om vermin and beast."

And again, we have Bees mentioned several times by Shakespeare.
We all know Ariel's song in the "Tempest"; and also where he
says, so graphically and concisely — '

" So work the honey-bees, —
Creatures that by a rule of nature teach
The art of order to a peopled kingdom."

Again, the Scottish poet of nature. Thomson, very pleasingly
writes, in the * Seasons ' : —

" Here their delicious task the fervent Bees
In swarming millions tend. Around, athwart,
Through the soft air the busy nations fly.
Cling to the bud, and with inserted tube
Suck its pure essence, its ethereal soul ;
And oft, with bolder wing, they soaring dare
The purple heath, or where the wild thyme grows,
And yellow load them with the luscious spoil."

The oldest book I possess on the subject is dated 1721, and is
entitled, ' The True Amazons ; or. Monarchy of Bees,' by Joseph
Warder ; and in this are quotations from a book by a Mr Purchas,
dated 1656, and bearing the curious title of '■ The Theatre of Politi-
cal Flying Insects.' Warder gives, with all seriousness, directions
for bringing dead Bees to life, by holding them in your warm
hands, or putting them in a perforated tin box in the trousers'
pocket ; but I need scarcely remark that the Bees so operated upon
were simply cases of suspended animation through cold. I have
revived hundreds, probably thousands, in the same manner, either
by holding them in my hands or putting them in a small perfor-
ated zinc tea-infuser in my trousers' pocket, without knowing that
Joseph Warder had adopted a precisely similar practice a century
and a half ago. The first symptoms of returning animation in chilled
Bees is a slight quivering of the antennee ; then a movement of the
folds of the abdomen in breathing ; then the insect gets on her
legs, moves her head about to see where she is, and lastly, before
taking flight, wipes her eyes and each of her antenna3 with her
fore-feet. It is interesting to watch this return to life and activity

1882-83.] Edmbiirgh NatiLvalists Field Club. 65

in a few minutes from apparent death. I have observed that wlien
the Bee's tongue or proboscis is protruded, the insect is dead be-
yond the power of Mr Warder or any one else to revive ; but that
so long as the tongue is retained between the mandibles, there is
hope of recovery by warmth. The dedication of Warder's book to
Queen Anne is quaint and amusing. He compares the devotion
of the queen's subjects to that of the Worker-Bees for their queen,
and reasons from analogy that the monarchical is the only proper
form of government. The next writer I will mention is Wildman,
the author of a treatise on the management of Bees, dated 17G8.
This work was published by subscription, and among the sub-
scribers are several Edinburgh men — namely, Dr Black, George
Clerk, Dr Ferguson, and others. Wildman also wrote a very ex-
cellent account of the natural history of Wasps. There are 'two
cases on record of Bees swarming on human beings — one of them
mentioned by Wildman. The particulars of these cases I will give
when I come to speak of swarming. The works of recent date on
our subject in this country, the Continent, and America, are so
numerous, that I must content myself with merely mentioning some
of the authors' names, such as Huber, Eeaumur, Schirach, Dzier-
zon, Bevan, Nutt, Chesshire, Eoot, Langstroth, Tegetmeyer, Petti-
grew, our townsman John Lowe, Sir John Lubbock, Cowan, and
last, but by no means least in importance, Mr Abbott of Fairlawn,
near London, the able and obliging editor of the 'British Bee
Journal,' and the author of " Leaflets for Cottagers," and other very
useful and inexpensive works. Mr Abbott's indef\^tigable exer-
tions in inculcating humanity towards Bees, and giving valuable
information, are fully appreciated by all who have the pleasure of
his acquaintance. In the summer of 1881 I spent some hours with
him amongst his beehives most enjoyably and profitably; and it
was there that I saw for the first time the newly imported Bees
from the island of Cyprus. In noticing Bee literature, it is extra-
ordinary to think how much we owe to a blind man for our inti-
mate knowledge of the natural history of the insect. I refer, of
course, to that estimable man, Francis Huber, who hved to the
venerable age of 81, and died in 1831. His work, written origi-
nally in French, but translated into English, is undoubtedly one
of the most scientific and best treatises we possess. Huber was
fortunate in having that greatest of earthly blessings, a devoted
and affectionate wife, and when he became totally blind he used
her eyes and reasoned upon what she saw ; and most of his remarks
have been repeatedly confirmed by subsequent writers. The account
of his matrimonial engagement is romantic and interesting. When
quite young, and attending a dancing academy, he formed an
ardent attachment to a daughter of M. Lullin, a member of the
syndic of the Swiss Republic ; and during his engagement, which

66 Transactions of tJie [Sess.

was of seven years' duration, he on one occasion lost his way on a
journey, and suffered so much from exposure to cold, &c,, that his
eyesight was seriously affected, and it became only too evident to
himself and his immediate friends that ere long he would be
entirely deprived of sight ; and M. Lullin strongly opposed the
marriage of his daughter to a man so afflicted. Huber, too, had
some fear lest the object of his affection should coincide with her
father's views, and endeavoured to conceal from her the extent of
]iis calamity. Huber, in fact, had not sufficient faith in the affec-
tion and devotion of this noble-minded girl. When she found out
he had tried to conceal from her how utterly blind he was becom-
ing, she reproached him for his distrust of her — probably the only
time she ever reproved him — telling him that there was now the
greater reason why they should be united, as he would require
that assistance and those innumerable attentions which a devoted
wife alone could supply ; that she should soon be of age, and
would then be her own mistress, and they would be married. And
most admirably did she prove her devotion. She became his right
hand in everything, his amanuensis, entering heartily into all his
scientific researches ; and in order that, when she could not accom-
pany him, he might not be deprived of his accustomed walks, she
stretched strings for his guidance along the paths he usually
frequented. She died many years before Huber ; and he remarks
that so long as she lived he never knew to the full extent how
great a calamity it is to be blind. Such was this amiable and
accomplished woman, Maria Aimee, the wife of Francis Huber. In
concluding this part of my subject, I may mention that one of the
best simple and practical books on Bees is Mr Cowan's ' Bee-
keeper's Guide Book,' published at the moderate price of Is. 6d.,
which has now run through several editions.

We will now proceed to the consideration of the natural history
of the Hive-Bee ; and this I will state as concisely as possible. An
ordinary good stock of Bees in the summer consists of one queen
or mature female, about 500 drones, and 20,000 workers. Swarms
of Bees are now frequently advertised to be sold by weight ; and I
may mention that it takes about 5000 Worker-Bees to weigh a
pound. The queen is the only Bee which lays eggs ; and it is
said she will lay as many as ' 2000 in twenty-four hours. My own
opinion is that this is a slight exaggeration, for it is at the rate
of 83 per hour ; and though I have often seen the queen laying
eggs much quicker than one a minute, I have observed that after lay-
ing a score or so she usually pauses for a time — and it is when she
is resting in this manner that you see a group of workers round,
with their heads all towards her, apparently caressing her by touches
with their antenuce, and offering her food from their tongues (see
Illustration). She also spends much time in walking over the combs

The Queen or Mother Bee stirrouuded by workers with their heads towards
her, as she can be seen at any time in an Observatory Hive, and as exhibited
in a glass Hive to the Eoyal Visitors at the British Bee-Keepers Association
at Kilburn, by Messes. Abbott Brothers, of Southall.

4

i

1882-83-] EdinbiirgJi Naturalists' Field Chib. 6y

to find suitable cells which have not already brood or honey in
them ; and she invariably puts her head into a cell before laying in
it. The queens are usually hatched in large cells placed vertically
on the edge of the comb, and it takes 17 days from the laying of
the egg till the queen emerges a peifect insect from the cell. A
drone takes 24 days, and a worker 21 days. The queen is much
longer in the body than the workers, has longer legs, and is pro-
vided with a sting, but which is seldom used except in a combat
with a rival queen. I have had a queen in my hand several times,
but never knew her attempt to sting. She never leaves the hive
except on her hymeneal flight, which occurs a few days after leav-
ing the cell, or when she leads out a swarm. The drones are the
males, are much larger than the workers, and have no stings ; and
none of these survive the winter. They begin to hatch out in
April or May, and are destroyed by the workers about August.
The workers are females, but incapable of reproduction — in fact,
immature queens ; for it is now considered an established truth,
that when a hive is by any accident deprived of its queen, a worker
grub, a few days old, is selected, its cell enlarged, and by giving
it a peculiar food it emerges a perfect queen. The workers are
provided with what is called a honey-sack, into which the honey
is drawn up from the nectary of the flowers, and ejected through
the tongue or proboscis into the cells. The cells containing drone
grubs are larger than those for worker grubs, and both kinds of
cells are used as receptacles for honey ; and it is clear the queen
must know what kind of eggs she is laying, as she does not deposit
a worker egg into a drone cell, or vice versa. The workers are also
provided with small sacks or cavities in their hind legs, which they
fill with pollen. The use of the antennae of Bees is a subject which
lias engaged the close attention and observation of many scientific
Bee-keepers, and especially of Sir John Lubbock ; and it seems, I
think, highly probable, that they are delicate and highly sensitive
organs of sense to which we have no strict analogy in our own
constitution. That they are feelers, we can have no doubt. But
are they not much more than this ? May not the insect through
them be made aware of atmospheric changes, or of vibrations in
the air caused by sound, or possibly may they not convey to the
insect a sensation resembling our sense of smell? These are
questions we cannot solve ; but we are quite certain they are most
important organs, though their exact uses we cannot define. If
you notice closely a worker leaving the hive, you will often see
that before taking flight she wipes her antennas with her fore-legs,
as though it were of the first importance that these organs should
be perfectly free from the smallest particle of dust or other extran-
eous matter. I have hundreds of times observed the workers do
this, but have not seen it remarked in any publication.

68 Tra7isacti07is of the [Sess.

We will now consider tlie various species of Bees, both indigen-
ous and introduced. As a honey-gathering Bee for any useful pur-
pose, we have really only one native species, the common black
Bee, Ajiis mellifica. We have certainly many species of beautiful
Humble Bees, such as Bomhus muscorum, Bomhus lapidarius, and
Bomhus terrestris, and others ; but these only gather enough honey
to feed their brood, and only a few of the females survive the win-
ter, and emerge in the spring, to become the founders of nests, and
in this respect their habits are very similar to those of Wasps.

Eegarding Honey-Bees which have been introduced into this
country in recent years we have now several species, — the Ligu-
rian or Italian, or, as it is sometimes designated, the Alp Bee, the
Egyptian Bee, the Cypriote Bee, and the Carniolan Bee. All these
are so nearly allied to our own species that they will cross and pro-
duce hybrids, and these hybrids are fertile, so that cross-bred Bees
are now by no means uncommon wherever Bees are kept, I have
a strong opinion that neither the Egyptian nor the Cypriote Bee
will eventually be favourites with Bee-keepers. They much resemble
each other, being of a very light colour, and smaller than our Bees,
very active, and, I believe, prolific breeders ; but the disposition of
both is far from amiable. My friend Mr Lowe had some years ago
a hive of Egyptians near the Dean Bridge, but if you even walked
in front of the hive there was some danger of being stung ; and
when I was at Fairlawn in 1881, Mr Abbott kindly ojDened a frame
hive of Cypriote Bees to show me the queen and drones of the
species, and though I had a Bee-veil on, I found I had to keep my
hands very firmly in my pockets to keep free from stings. I look,
however, on Ligurians, as evidently Virgil did, as an improvement
on our own, and in these respects, — that they are prettier insects,
having the anterior rings of the abdomen of a pale brown colour ;
they are more active, and unquestionably more prolific, and as
honey-gatherers quite equal if not superior to otir own Bees. It
may probably be found that hybrids between our own and Liguri-
ans are the best of all. With regard to the prolific nature of these
hybrids, I will mention a fact which came under my notice this year.
In May I had one straw hive of black Bees ; a neighbour had a
similar hive of hybrids, — both, I think, equally strong in numbers.
My hive threw off one swarm only on the 15th June ; my neighbour's,
on the other hand, threw off one swarm on the 30th May, a second
on the 10th June, and a third on the 16th of the same month :
moreover, the first swarm of the 30th May sent off other three
swarms, so that in July, while of black Bees there were only two
stocks, of hybrids there were seven.

To me one of the most interesting sights connected with Bee-
keeping is the process of swarming — that is, the queen leading out
a swarm to form a new colony ; and this always takes place when

1882-83.] Edinburgh Naturalists Field Club. 69

there are young queens being reared, one of which will be able to
take the place of the old queen who had left. As perhaps many of
our members may have never witnessed the process of swarming,
I will give a brief account of my own swarm last June, — for, though
I have hived perhaps over 100 swarms, I had never before actually
seen the queen leave the hive on these occasions, and I much
wished to do so. I knew the Bees were ready to swarm. There
are manifestations of this well known to Bee-keepers ; and after
several wet days, the morning of the 15th June opened with bright
sunshine, so about 10 o'clock I posted myself close to the hive, and
kept a sharp look-out, and happily had not been long there before I
saw the queen walk out of the hive, pause for a few moments on
the landing-board, and then take flight. To my surprise, a full
minute or more elapsed before the rush of Bees to the mouth of .the
hive took place : then out they came, as they always do, with that
helter-skelter speed, as one writer describes it, as though their
lives depended on their expedition ; and as you watch the living
stream tumbling over each other in their haste to get out, you
wonder how the hive could possibly hold so many. The air was
then full of them, and they seemed to be long in finding their
queen, and so tired with flying that they settled thickly over the
grass, on the wall of the garden and house, and great numbers on
myself, and it was impossible to move without treading on some.
However I saw the queen not far from me walking up the wall,
and soon there was the joyous hum, so well known to Bee-keepers,
as the Bees all rose and congregated round her in a dense mass on
the wall. I then placed my bar-framed hive above the cluster of
Bees, with one edge resting on the wall, and the other supported
on a stake from the ground, and successfully hived them.

The custom of " ringing Bees " by beating the shovel with the
poker when a swarm has issued was very general in my younger
days, and is still practised in many rural districts in England,
from an idea that the Bees would not settle unless this were done.
Two reasons have been assigned for the custom, — one, that you
gave your neighbours notice that you had a swarm on the wing,
and so were at liberty to follow them ; another, that it was an imi-
tation of thunder, and that during an impending storm the Bees
would be more ready to settle and get under shelter. It is gener-
ally considered lawful, both here and in England, to follow a swarm
on to your neighbour's projDerty to hive them, and such is the
universal custom, but whether you are strictly within the law is
somewhat doubtful. A circumstance occurred last summer in Eng-
land which seemed likely to bring this point to an issue. A swarm
belonging to a Mr Thomson settled in his neighbour's garden, such
neighbour being one of the fair and gentle sex, though the latter
quality was not very apparent in this instance, for seeing the clus-

70 Transactions of the [Sess.

ter on the tree, she procured a large tub of water, and drowned the
entire swarm. Then came a very strong remonstrance from Mr Thom-
son, but the only reply he received was that " she neither wanted-
Mr Thomson nor his Bees in her garden, and what was more, she
would not have them." This was followed by a lawyer's letter
demanding compensation for destruction of property, and it ended
in the lady paying what was considered an equivalent for the
value of the swarm, to avoid litigation. So the law upon the point
is still unsettled ; but the British Bee-Keeper's Association have
resolved, when another case arises, to obtain a legal decision on
the point, entertaining scarcely a doubt that such decision will be
in accordance with what is the universal custom.

There are two instances on record of swarms of Bees settling on
human beings, and these may perhaps interest you. The first is
mentioned by Mr Lombard ; the second by an old English Bee-
keeper named Tliorley, in the year 1717, and recorded in Wildman's
book. Lombard says : —

' ' A young giii of my acquaintance was greatly afraid of Bees, but was
completely cured of her fear by the following incident. A swarm having left
the hive, I observed the queen alight by herself at a little distance from the
apiary. I immediately called my little friend that I might show her this im-
portant personage. She was anxious to have a nearer view of her majesty,
and therefore, ha^dng first caused her to draw on her gloves, I gave the queen
into her hand. Scarcely had I done so when we were surrounded by the
whole Bees of the swarm. In this emergency I encouraged the trembling
girl to be steady and to fear nothing, remaining myself close to her, and cov-
ering her head and shoulders with a thin handkerchief. I then made her
stretch out her hand, which held the queen, and the Bees instantly alighted
on it, and hung from her fingers as from the bi-anch of a tree. The girl, ex-
periencing no injury, was delighted above measure at the novel sight, and so
entirely freed from fear that she bade me uncover her face. The spectators
were charmed at the interesting spectacle. I at length brought a hive, and
shaking the swarm from the child's hand, it was lodged in safety without
inflicting a single sting."

This is Thorley's account of a somewhat similar occurrence : —

"In the year 1717 one of my swarms settled among the twisted branches
of a Codlin tree, and not to be got into a hive without help, my maid-servant,
being in the garden, offered her assistance to hold the hive while I dislodged
the Bees. Having never been acquainted with Bees, she put a linen cloth
over her head and shoulders, to secure her from their stings. A few of the
Bees fell into the hive, and some on the ground, but the main body upon the
cloth which covered her garments. I took the hive out of her hands when
she cried out that the Bees were got under the covering, and were crowding
up towards her breast and face, which put her into a trembling posture.
\\1ien I perceived the veil was of no further service, she gave me leave to
remove it. This done, a most affecting spectacle presented itself to the view
of all the company, filling me with the deepest distress and concern, as I
thought myself the unhappy instrument of drawing her into so imminent
hazard of her life. Had she enraged them, all resistance would have been
vain, and nothing less than her life would have atoned for the offence. I
spared not to use all the arguments I could think of, and used the most

1882-83-] EdiiiburgJi Naturalists Field Club. 71

affectionate entreaties, begging her with all earnestness in my power to stand
her ground, and keep her present posture ; in order to which I gave her en-
couragement to hope for a full discharge from her disagreeable companions.
I began to search amongst them for the queen, they ha\dng now got in a
great body upon her breast, about her neck, and up to her chin. I immedi-
ately seized her from the crowd, with some of the commons in company with
her, and put them together into the hive. Here I watched her for some time,
and as I did not observe that she came out, I conceived an expectation of see-
ing the whole body quickly abandon their settlement : but instead of that, I
soon observed them gathering closer together, without the least signal of de-
parting. Then I immediately reflected that either there must be another
sovereign, or that the same was returned. I directly commenced a second
search, and in a short time, with a most agreeable surprise, found a second or
the same. She strove by entering farther into the crowd to escape me, but I
reconducted her with a great number of the populace into the hive. And
now the melancholy scene began to change into one infinitely more agreeable
and pleasant. The Bees, missing their queen, began to dislodge and rapair
to the hive, crowding into it in multitudes, and in the greatest hurry imagin-
able, and in the space of two or three minutes the maid had not a single Bee
about her, neither had she so much as one sting."

Artificial swarms are now frequently made either by driving- from
straw skeps, or where frame-hives are used, by taking a few frames
containing brood-comb from a full hive, and putting them into an
empty one. These processes are fully explained in the cheap leaf-
lets published by the British Bee-Keeper's Association. The titles
of the leaflets published at a halfpenny each are as under, and they
are most useful publications : " Making an Apiary," " Managing
an Apiary," " Quieting Bees," " Bee Entomology," " Transferring,"
" Feeding," " Ligurianising," " Driving Bees," " Making Artificial
Swarms," and " Fixing Comb Foundations."

Some years ago I assisted my friend Mr Lowe to drive a stock of
Bees : it was a Liginian colony which he wished to send to London.
The process is simple. We reversed the straw hive, placed an empty
hive on the top, put a cloth round the junction of the two hives,
then drummed on the inverted hive to alarm the Bees, which hur-
ried with their queen up into the empty hive, where they clustered.
This we did in the evening, and the same night the Bees in the
new hive were despatched to London, and the old hive, full of brood
and a few workers, restored to its former place.

The practice of ligurianising stocks of black Bees is now carried
on extensively — /.e., substituting a Ligurian queen for a black one.
These queens are bred here, and also imported for sale at 6s. or 8s.
each. The old queen is removed, and the Ligurian, with a few of
her subjects, confined in a perforated zinc cage placed in the hive.
It would not do to put the new queen in without this precaution,
as she would probably be at once destroyed. But when the workers
miss their queen, and the scent from the hive has penetrated well
into the cage, the workers, on the cage being opened, welcome the
new queen, and treat her as they would their own. She then be-

72 Transactions of tlie [Sess.

gins of course to lay Lignrian eggs, and as the old black Bees die
off, the hive becomes in a few months a pure Lignrian "colony, and
this practice has enabled us to form a very good idea of the dura-
tion of life of a vporker Bee, the average of vs^hich is found not to
exceed a few months.

It may be well to enumerate a few of the flowers most frequented
by Bees. I will merely mention some of the most important. In
the early spring the Crocus and Willow are perhaps the first, and
much pollen is procured from these, and also from the blossoms of
fruit-trees. Raspberry and Gooseberry blossoms seem great favour-
ites with Bees, and Turnip flowers, and all the Brassica tribe ; then
Eibes, Lime, Arabis alpinus, Limnanthes Douglasii, Wallflower,
Mignonette, White Clover, Melilotus leucantha ; and in the autumn
Heather, Ivy, Garden Balsam, &c. A full list of Bee flowers is given
in a recent number of the ' British Bee JournaL' One fact may not
be generally known, namely, that a Bee, when gathering honey,
does not go promiscuously from one flower to another — for instance,
from White Clover to Mignonette. If she begins on Mignonette,
she goes to no other flower till she returns to the hive. You can
notice this at any time, and I have no doubt your observations will
confirm my statement.

We will now glance at some of the enemies of Bees. You are
aware, from the paper I wrote last year on the Flycatcher, that I do
not consider our small birds as enemies to Bees. That beautiful
bird the Bee-eater [Merops apiaster) is always spoken of as a
great destroyer of them, but it never visits Scotland, and is an
extremely rare visitant to England, where unfortunately its attrac-
tive plumage soon renders it a specimen for our museums. It is
possible its long bill may enable it to kill Worker-Bees with im-
punity. Wasps are great enemies to Bees. I have known weak
colonies entirely destroyed by them. Mice will sometimes in
AA'inter, when the Bees are almost helpless, make sad havoc with
the combs, but the entrance of the hive ought never to be suf-
ficiently large to admit them. Snails in their shells sometimes
crawl into a hive, and the Bees, not being able to eject them, with
propolis fix the edges of the shell to the floor-board, and the mol-
lusc is suffocated, and so hermetically sealed that its remains can-
not be deleterious or offensive. The Wax Moth is an enemy, for
the larvse do great injury to the combs ; and the Death's-Head Moth
is also mentioned as doing much mischief in hives, but this splen-
did Moth is seldom seen in Scotland. By far the greatest enemies
the Bees have are unquestionably human, or more properly inhuman,
beings, who, not content with taking a portion of the honey the in-
sects have stored, still dig holes in the garden, in which sulphur is
burned, and the hive placed over the fumes, and the whole colony
suffocated, and the dead and dying buried out of sight. We will

1882-83.] Edinburgh Naturalists Field Club. yi)

sincerely hope that this unmitigated and unnecessary barbarity
will soon be an action of the past, for now wherever Bee-societies
are established, there are always members who will willingly, on
being allowed the insects for their trouble, drive them for the
cottager, instead of destroying them, and even pay him some trifle
for the Bees so driven.

The. places selected by Bees in their wild state for habitations
are hollow trees and holes in rocks ; and I have known many in-
stances where swarms have located themselves under the tiles or
slates of houses, and remained there for years ; and I once hived a
swarm in Wiltshire, which issued from a disused chimney. Some
cousins of mine, who settled in Illinois forty years ago, established
their apiary in the following manner : — Having discovered a strong
colony of Bees in a hollow tree, they in the evening plugged up the
entrance, sawed off the top, and afterwards the root, and then
shouldered the portion containing the Bees, and stuck it upright
in their garden, and as swarms issued hived them in the usual
way. How different is the state of things now in Illinois, for tliat
state is quite in the van of Bee-culture, the only weekly publication
on the subject in the world being published at Chicago.

Various materials have been, and still are, used in the construc-
tion of hives. Virgil mentions the bark of trees, and the slender
Willow twigs twisted together. In Northern Africa hives in gene-
ral use are made of earthenware, very like our drain-pipes, one end
being blocked up, and a small hole left in the other : these are
stacked one upon another, so that a number of hives would occupy
a small space. Straw and wood are, however, the common materials
used in all temperate climates, and it is still an open question
which is preferable. Straw is a good non-conductor of heat, but not
so durable as thick wood ; and now, with all advanced Bee-keepers,
wood seems to be preferred. I have often thought that cork, or
wood with a cork lining, would be very suitable, cork being a good
absorbent of moisture, and good as a non-conductor ; and I see hives
with a cork lining have very recently been advertised for sale. In
a recent number of the Journal, mention is made of a hive of
plaster of Paris, the invention of a Scotchman, a Mr Paterson of
Struan, who says Bees winter well in it, and that it is a panacea
for all winter troubles in this climate.

The forms in which hives have been constructed are almost end-
less, depending much on the system adopted — such as the colla-
teral one of placing boxes beside each other, on a level, with com-
munication from one to the other, or piling them vertically as supers
or nadirs. Warder tells us that a Mr Gedde was the first man in
this country who made hives of wood, and he was granted a patent
for his invention by King Charles II.

Nutt's collateral bee-boxes were much used in England thirty

74 Transactions of the [Sess.

years ago, and were patented, but they were unnecessarily com-
plicated, and very costly — their principal merit being, that with
them honey could be taken on the depriving system without de-
stroying the Bees, and this was a great advance on Bee-keeping at
that time ; but all modern hives now give facilities for this practice.
Afterwards Stewarton brought out his octagonal boxes placed one
upon another on the storifying principle, and these are still exten-
sively used, but there is here also the objection of expense ; and,
moreover, when you have several stories in a hive, there must
necessarily be much valuable time wasted by the insects in going
up to deposit the honey. The Giotto hive, the invention of an
Italian, is much used in that country, and has been introduced
here. It consists of a number of frames, like sections of a square
box placed longitudinally, and held together by iron pins and nuts ;
but it is too cold for this climate, and can never be so workable as
a bar-framed hive. A writer in the ' Bee Journal ' of Oct. last speaks
of it thus : "I unhesitatingly say, from my experience of about a
dozen Giotto hives, that they are unworkable, are virtually fixed, — ■
and if you want to utterly disgust any one with Bee-keeping, recom-
<mend him a Giotto hive, for, to manage one, he would require to
have the temper of an angel, the patience of Job, and the skin of a
rhinoceros." Without mentioning the great variety of hives which
have from time to time been invented, I will now direct your at-
tention to the modern bar-framed hive — one of which, made by Mr
Cockburn of Cairnie, by Keith, I exhibit for your inspection. This
is the form now so generally used by Bee-keepers, and acknowledged
to be the best for practicability and utility in Bee management, A
standard size of frame has now been agreed upon and adopted by
most makers : it is 13| inches by 8 inches inside the top of the
frame, being one inch wide, and spaces between the frames being
half an inch. This hive combines many advantages. It can be
reduced in size at pleasure, by taking out some of the frames and
substituting padding, for keeping out winter cold. Honey can be
taken at any moment without destroying the Bees ; and by inserting
a dividing zinc plate, which, while allowing workers to pass through,
excludes the queen, we can ensure combs of honey free from
brood ; and by placing over the frames a crate of supers, we have
the power of temporarily enlarging the hive to almost any extent.
The entrance, by an ingenious and simple arrangement, can be
enlarged or contracted at pleasure.

For purposes of observation of the internal economy of the hive,
many forms of observatory hives are made, and prizes are given
annually for these hives at the Kensington Exhibition, and the
stipulations of the Association regarding these hives are, that they
shall allow every Bee in the hive to be seen at any moment, so that
the queen is always visible. They are, therefore, mostly uni-comb

1882-83.] Edinburgh NaUiralists' Field Club. 75

hives. There is an excellent revolving one at the Alexandra Palace,
near London, with Bees working in it all the summer. The great
objection to uni-comb observatory hives is the difficulty of wintering
Bees in them, as it is the habit of the insects in winter to cluster
between the combs. But they afford excellent opportunities for
observing all that goes on in the hive, and are extremely inter-
esting.

One of the most useful inventions in Bee management is the
slinger. This consists of a small metal box, in which a frame of
honey is fixed, and by centrifugal force the honey is sent out of the
comb, "and the empty comb and frame placed again in tlie hive.
This saves the Bees a large amount of trouble in comb-making.

I ought, perhaps, to have explained how combs are formed. The
Bees hang together in a cluster, and very small, almost transparent
lamina3 of wax exude from between the folds of the abdomen. These
scales are caught by the hind legs of the Bee, and passed along under
the body to the mandibles, and by these worked into comb.

Honey is wholesome and palatable, and should be produced in
this country in far larger quantities than it is, for there are many
districts abounding with honey and other flowers where scarcely
any Bees are kept : this is said to be especially the case in Derby-
shire. It is generally considered that Bees do not go beyond a
radius of two miles from their hives ; but in contradiction to this,
I have seen mention of them in the Isle of May, which is full four
miles from the nearest point of the mainland : but this report of
Bees on the May requires confirmation.

We are apt to suppose that the best way to get pure honey is to
buy it in the comb, and, as a general rule, this is correct ; but it is
not without exception, for there are ingenious people on the other
side the Atlantic, and there is a cheap substance produced there in
the manufacture of sugar called " glucose." Now there is nothing
deleterious in glucose : it resembles in appearance pale-coloured
treacle, and is extensively used in confectionery both here and in
America. Some Bee-keepers in the States ascertained that if Bees
were supplied with glucose and water, they would take a large
quantity, put it in their cells, and seal it up for winter use. Now
glucose and water, sold at the price of honey, showed a very good
margin of profit, and was indeed a good commercial speculation,
and large quantities of this compound in the comb have been, and
perhaps still are, imported into this country. As to the honesty
of the transaction I need not speak.

Another subject of adulteration I will mention. This comb-
foundation which I exhibit has, since the introduction of bar- framed
hives, been extensively used, and is manufactured from Bee's-wax :
one maker near Glasgow sold upwards of a ton of it last year. You
are aware there are large oil springs in America, and our ingenious

J 6 Transactions of tJie [Sess.

friends across the water discovered that the yellow substance
formed in the refinement of oil, mixed with some pure Bee's-wax
to give the proper perfume, made very good-looking comb-founda-
tion, and was far cheaper than genuine wax, and large quantities
of this compound were last year exported from the States to this
country. But besides Bee-keepers, there were the Bees themselves
which had to be deceived, and when this impure material was fixed
in the frames for them to work into comb, they turned up their
noses at it — or, more properly perhaps, those highly sensitive organs,
their antennaa — and positively refused to have anything to do
with it. In these times of adulteration it is rather difficult to know
when we get a genuine article. The last instance on record is the
case of a man bent on self-destruction, who bought poison ; but the
poison was adulterated, and the man recovered !

Let us consider, in conclusion, what is the position of Bee-culture
in different countries, as far as we know, at the present time. Bees
are found all over Eussia and Siberia — in southern Eussia very ex-
tensively— because the peasants use honey instead of sugar ; and
wax-tapers, to the value of no less than £180,000, are required every
year for the gorgeous ritual of the Greek Church. In Eussian
Poland some of the peasants are said to possess four hundred hives
each ; and in Spain, Bees are kept to a still larger extent, a single
parish priest in that country being known to have as many as five
thousand hives. Humboldt tells us that, in his time, from the island
of Cuba, wax to the value of 650,000 dollars was exported annually.
In Denmark, Bee-keeping is extensively carried on ; while in Ger-
many and Hungary large colonies are found. In 1873 the aggre-
gate number of stocks in Germany was estimated at 1,450,000 —
Bavaria alone having 330,000. Bee-culture is largely encouraged
by the German Government : teachers in the management of Bees
are paid by the State, who travel through the rural districts. In
the villages Bee-clubs are common, and as a result of all this care,
Germany has produced many skilful apiarians, and contributed much
to our knowledge of apiculture. It is in America, however, that
the science has been most extensively carried on, and every scien-
tific appliance brought into use. America is highly productive of
honey-sucking flowers, and as a consequence, large honey harvests
are obtained. In 1874, one Bee-farm alone — that of Mr Harbison,
in San Diego county, California — furnished the enormous quantity
of 67 tons of honey. In Egypt, as the plants blossom and fruit
ripens about six weeks earlier in Upper Egypt than in Lower, the
Bee-keepers in the latter, in the spring, move their hives in hun-
dreds in boats, and convey them up the Nile. The Bees go forag-
ing every day, returning at night to their hives. Then the boats
are gradually moved along down the river, and thus advantage is
taken of the succession of flowers that flourish so abundantly on

1882-83.] Edinburgh Naturalists Field Clnb. yj

the banks of the Nile. Niebuhr states tliat he once saw near Cairo
a convoy of four thousand hives on the Nile. This practice is also
followed by the Italians ; and in France, also, floating boat-houses
for Bees are comnaon.

Now let us look at home. Under the system of Bee-keeping adopt-
ed until within the last few years, hundreds of tons of honey must
have been annually wasted. At a recent meeting of the Worces-
tershire Bee Association, it was stated that a calculation had been
made that Scotland alone cotild have maintained on its Bee pastures
enough Bees to have provided 4,000,000 lb. of honey and 1,000,000
lb. of wax. Scarcely a mile from Land's End to John-o'- Groats is
properly stocked with Bees ; and in Ireland the land flows with
honey, yet for miles you travel without seeing a single Bee-hive.
If these little insects vpere kept, all they would ask would be fair
treatment — immunity from the brimstone pit, and a portion of the
stores they gather. The science of Bee-keeping is not formidable.
What a Russian, a German, or an American can do, surely we can ;
and moreover we are doing it, and making rapid progress — though
not rapid enough — in Bee-culture. Bee societies are being estab-
lished all over the kingdom. We have here the Caledonian Apiar-
ian Society, of which I have been a member from its formation.
There is scarcely a county in England now without its Bee Associa-
tion, often with a nobleman or noble lady as president ; and the
clergy of all denominations, much to their credit, are generally in
the van in the movement. I know one parish clergyman in Eng-
land, a good carpenter, who makes frame hives and sells them, de-
voting the proceeds of his labour to the improvement of his schools,
and he feels that he is thus doing good in more ways than one.
Mr Cockburn of Keith, the maker of my hive, states, in a recent
number of the Journal, that he knows a working man who this year
made £20 by his Bees ; and that the Rev. Robert Grant of the Free
Manse, Botriphnie, had a hive which produced 98 lb. of splendid
super honey, — and he adds, who will dare to say that Bees won't
pay. But to my mind, to pay well there are three requisites —
careful, not difficult, management ; a fair locality for honey ; and
humane treatment.

The principal aim of Bee societies is to encourage Bee-keeping
among artisans and cottagers, to abolish at once and for ever the
cruel and unnecessary practice of destroying the Bees to obtain
the honey, and to foster among this class habits of thrift and
temperance, combined with an intellectual pursuit, to add to their
home pleasures, and to make them thus better and more intelligent
members of society. We must bear in mind that in Bee-keeping
very small space is required. Bees are not deemed trespassers, —
there is no Glen Tilt in their case ; but as far as unrestricted range
goes, the peasant is on an equality with the peer. Believe me, it

VOL. I. F

yS Transactions of tJie [Sess.

is in the power of all of us to do some little good in the world — we
know not how much till we try : and if we can succeed in showing
our cottagers and artisans that by keeping a few hives of Bees they
can make them pay a considerable portion of their rent ; that Bee-
keeping will give them an additional interest in their homes ; and
that a chat with their neighbours on a summer's evening in the
society of Apis melUJica is better for them in every way than the
society of the Blue Dragon or the Grolden Lion, we shall have
really benefited our neighbours. And following up this train of
thought, perhaps I cannot more appropriately close these remarks
than by quoting from one of our poets the short tale of " Abou
Ben Adhem and the Angel " : —

" Abou Ben Adhem (may his tribe increase ! )
Awoke one night fi-om a deep dream of peace,
And saw, within the moonlight in his room,
Making it rich, and like a lily in bloom,
An angel, writing in a book of gold.
Exceeding peace had made Ben Adhem bold.
And to the presence in the room he said —
' What writest thou ? ' The vision raised its head,
And, with a look made of all sweet accord.
Answered, 'The names of those who love the Lord.'
' And is mine one ? ' said Abou. ' Nay, not so, '
Replied the angel. Abou spoke more low,
But cheer ly still, and said — 'I pray thee, then,
Write me as one who loves his fellow-men.'

The angel wrote, and vanished. The next night
It came again with a great wakening light.
And showed the names whom love of God had blessed,
And lo, Ben Adhem's name led all the rest ! "

VIL—LIST OF A FEW FERNS AND FERN- VARIETIES COL-
LECTED CHIEFLY IN THE PARISH OF KILMALCOLM,
RENFREWSHIRE, 1881-82.

By Mr STEWAET ARCHIBALD.

{Communicated Dec. 22, 1882.)

I HAVE now been a collector of plants in general for a good many
years, and of Ferns in particular for a longer period still, and had
come to think I knew these latter pretty well, having gathered the
most of the species now to be found in Scotland. My books, of
course, told me that there were several varieties of some of the
Ferns, but I thought them too rare to be frequently met with, and

1882-83.] Edinburgh Naturalists Field Club

').

so made no special effort to find any of them. It was like a new
revelation — it was in reality an introduction to a new (botanical)
world of wonders — when last year tliere were placed in my hands
two large vohnnes for perusal, being Lowe's ' Our Native Ferns,'
in which he describes 50 species and nearly 1300 varieties, most
of them being figured, and many beautifully printed in their natu-
ral colours. The first attempt at perusal of such a work causes a
feeling of bewilderment, but in a short time the eye and mind get
somewhat familiarised with the many very varied and very beau-
tiful forms assumed by our old familiar friends, when growing
under suitable circumstances as to soil, climate, »fec. Only a small
proportion (less than 10 per cent) of the varieties are mentioned
as having been found in Scotland, most of the finer ones bemg
apparently confined to the warmer regions in the south and west of
our island. Lowe remarks that although a great deal had been
done during a few years previous to the date of publication of
his work (1865), in the way of searching for and finding Fern
varieties, a wide field was still open in that direction. What has
been done since 1865 I have no means of knowing, though doubt-
less a good deal has been accomplished. A diligent search in our
northern and less favoured part of the island will no doubt be the
means of finding already known varieties in many new localities,
or even of discovering new varieties. But then, though every
thing possible were known and recorded in books (and of course
it is not), it remains for each of us to make the knowledge our own
as far as we can by practical field work. So having made myself
somewhat familiar with the appearance of the several varieties,
and being in a fairly good locality, I went out to try what I could
find. You have now the results of my labours within narrow
limits both of time and place ; and the collection is interesting,
not so much on account of what it is, as showing what may be
done.

And now a little as to the locality. An open pastoral glen,
about 400 feet above sea-level, and about four miles inland from
the Firth of Clyde at Port-Glasgow, surrounded by low hills, ex-
cept on the east, towards which the streams in this part of the
county fiow. Through the glen runs a small sti'eam, the Green-
water, joined by another small stream, the Blackwater. On the
rocky peninsula between them stand the ruins of Duchal Castle.
For some distance above and below the ruins the scenery on
the streams is very fine and romantic, where they flow through
deep rocky gorges, whose banks are shaded with bushes and trees.
It was chiefly in these gorges that the Ferns in this collection
were gathered. In these gorges, and all around, at ditch-sides,
hedge-sides, road-sides, the commoner sorts of Ferns grow in great
profusion, and very luxiu'iantly. Specially may be noted the Oak

8o

Transactions of the

[Sess.

Fern, wliich completely drapes the high banks near the old castle
with its pretty fronds. A finer display, in its way, could scarcely
be seen anywhere.

The species of Ferns which contain most varieties are Polypo-
dinm vulgare (37 varieties), Polystichum angulare (162), Lastrea
filix-mas (69), L. dilatata (61), Athyrinm filix-foemina (over 200),
Scolopendrium vulgare (over 400), and Blechnum spicant (68).
Several Ferns, as Polypodium Dryopteris, the Woodsias, the Hy-
menophyllums, &c., are not known to produce any varieties.

The following is the list of Fern varieties which I have gathered
in tliis locality: — ■

Polypodium vulgare, var. auritum.

„ Phegopteris, var. multifidum.

Lastrea filix-mas, var. abbreviata.
Borreri.

incisa (with two sub-varieties),
producta (with sub-variety),
dentata.
pinnatifida.

furcans (with two sub- varieties),
variabilis,
depauperata.
multiformis,
var. Brownii.
Athyrium filix-foemina, var. incisum.

„ „ decompositum.

„ ,, denticulatum.

Scolopendrium vulgare, var. undulatum.

sublineatum.
reniforme.

11
11
11
11

Lastrea dilatata.

11

11
11

The following Fern species have also been gathered by me in
this district : —

Polypodium vulgare.

„ Dryopteris.

„ Phegopteris.

Polystichum aculeatum.
Lastrea filix-mas.

„ dilatata.

„ Oreopteris.
Athyrium filix-foemina.
Asplenium Trichomanes.
Blechnum boreale.
Pteris aquilina.
Hymenophyllum Wilsonii,
Cystopteris fragilis.

Botrychium lunaria,

(All the above were gathered within
a mile of the old castle.)

Asplenium Trichomanes.

„ viride.

Cystopteris fragilis.
Scolopendrium vulgare.
Asplenium Adiantum-nigrum,

(The first three were gathered in
Devol Glen, the last two at the side
of the Clyde below Gourock. One
or two plants of AUosorus crispus
have also been got in the parish.)

1882-83.] Edinburgh Naturalists' Field Club. 81

VIII.— NOTE ON THE CONTINUED FLOWERING OF THE
MALE FLOWERS OF ANACHARIS ALSINASTRUM.

By Mr AV. TAIT KINNEAR.

{Read Dec. 22, 1882.)

Perhaps the members of the Field Chib are aware that the male
flowers of this common and noxious weed were only noticed for
the first time in Great Britain in the autumn of 1880. They were
found by a well-known Edinburgh botanist, Mr D. Douglas, on one
of the ponds on the Braid Hills, frequently used for skating pur-
poses in winter-time, and were figured in ' Science Gossip.' The
object of this note is not to describe the flower, as that has been
done already, but to state that I have noticed that the plants have
produced male flowers ever since. When Mr Douglas was work-
ing up the subject, I frequently visited the spot with him, and
gathered numerous specimens. Last year (1881) my friend could
not go out, owing to extreme ill-health, in order to notice the
flowering, so that I did it myself. I had a pressing request from
Mr Bennet of Croydon to get specimens, but when I went to get
them, rain had so increased the depth of the water that the plants
themselves, let alone their flowers, were invisible. On Saturday,
September 9, 1882, I again repaired to see if the flowers would
again be found, and there they were, floating among Potamogetons
and Bur-reeds, with their yellow pollen strewed over the water.
The fact, then, is established, that this extremely rare flower, as
yet only chronicled from the one spot in Britain, has flowered for
three consecutive seasons, 1880-81-82 ; and there is no reason for
thinking that when the male flower was found in 1880, that this
was the first time they had flowered. It is, I think, very probable,
from the fact that they have been noticed for three seasons run-
ning, that they must have been flowering a considerable time pre-
viously. Any enterprising young member of the Club could, I
think, write a good paper on the variations of the pistil in the
female flower, as numerous different forms occur.

At this meeting a series of Sponge-spicules were shown under
the microscope by the Secretary.

82 Transactions of the [Sess.

IX.-THE RAINING, SELKIRK: WITH NOTICES OF ITS
ANTIQUITIES, TOPOGRAPHY, AND NATURAL HISTORY.

By Mr JOHN LINDSAY.

(EeadJan. 25, 1883.)

Should any one, in search of quiet pastoral beauty, resolve to

"turn aside,
Aiid see the Braes of Yarrow,"

he would do well to include the ancient town of Selkirk, the centre
of numerous Border traditions, and the scene of many stirring
events in the stormy days of Scotland's early history. As remote
as 1124 there already existed at this place a castle, a village, and
a church, and these seem to have arisen in the order named. The
roy^ hunting-ground of The Forest necessitated a royal residence,
while under its shadow quickly clustered a number of huts ; and then,
for purposes of devotion, a church was built in intimate connection
with the Court, and named Selechirche, from two Celtic words
meaning " the great church," or " the church of the king's Court."
Such, at least, is what some authorities give as the origin and
meaniua: of the name Selkirk. The little town seems to have been
for a lengthened period a kind of " debatable land " — the arena of
constant strife and the subject of varied possession. Thus we find
Chalmers relating, in his ' Caledonia,' that " during the long con-
flicts for the succession to the crown, the town of Selkirk was often
granted to the successive partisans of the rival kings." ^ Besides,
it was ever and anon roughly treated by the English, who had
probably learnt by bitter experience something of the fierce spirit
of "the foresters." As has often been related, of the eighty bur-
gesses of Selkirk who, under the leadership of their town-clerk,
followed James IV. to Flodden, but four returned — for the little
band had fought with desperate valour. Therefore that pathetic
wail which has come down to us through the centuries, that " our
braw foresters are a' wede awa'." In retaliation, the English,
shortly after Flodden, burst across the Border, and, amongst other
depredations, burnt the old town of Selkirk to the ground. James
v., however, showered on the houseless inhabitants, in return, his
kingly favours. Their lost charter, constituting the town a royal
burgh, was renewed, and 1000 acres of forest-ground, with the trees
for rebuilding their houses, were granted as a reward for their
loyalty. But in about thirty years thereafter Selkirk was again
burnt down, in that malicious and vandal-like progress of the Earl

^ Chalmers, 'Caledonia,' vol. ii. p. 978.

1882-83.] Edinburgh Naturalists Field Club. ^-i,

of Hertford, when so much wantou mischief was done throughout
the length and breadth of the Lowlands.

These introductory rem'arks regarding the ancient town of Selkirk
have been given, partly on account of the interest attaching to the
subject, but chiefly because of the intimate connection of the old
town with our present theme. For Selkirk is said to have stood,
when thus burnt down in the reign of Henry VIIL, on what is now
part of The Haining estate. On entering by the handsome gate-
way situated in what is yet called " The Green," though now a
public thoroughfare leading to the market-place, the site of the old
town is shown on tlie left hand. This place, known as the '* Chicken
Acre," is also traditionally said to be the burial-place of that noted
freebooter Willie Armstrong and of nine of his followers, who were
tried at Selkirk, and hanged on the Gallows Knowe, still pointed
out. Seeing, therefore, that we are thus inside The Haining, it
may not be out of place to say a few words concerning the histor}^
of the estate. As regards the name itself — "The Haining" — it
simply means that part of Ettrick Forest which was hained — i.e.,
set apart, preserved, or enclosed — for the king's use.^ Anciently
the whole county was termed Ettrick Forest, or briefly The Forest ;
and in this favourite hunting-place of our early kings there seems
to have been no want of sport. One of the oldest of Scottish bal-
lads, " The Song of the Outlaw Murray," jdescribes it as containing

" Baith dae and rae, and hart and liynd,
And of all wild beasts great plentie."

The Scottish- kings, in imitation of the Anglo-Norman monarchs,
issued from time to time " Forest Laws," and amongst these are
found very stringent enactments as to the privacy of The Haining.
The castle was occupied as a royal -residence during the hunting
season for more than two hundred years — viz., from David L to
Alexander III. — and was a favourite abode of William the Lion.
Its site is now known as Peel Hill, but no trace of any building is
left above-ground — nothing except a large Yew-tree to mark the spot
where the castle stood. In this castle, during the 12th and 13th
centuries, the Scottish kings occasionally held " assizes," as they
were termed, and issued thence — " In curia regis apud Selechirche "
— Acts of Parliament. These old Acts have been preserved, and
reprinted, with others of that time. They are hardly Acts of Par-
liament, however, as we now understand these, but rather quaint
exhortations regarding the manners and morals of the king's
subjects. The castle of Selkirk changed hands frequently after it
ceased to be a royal residence — now being held by the English, and

^ "It is defended and forbidden that anie man dwelling within the wood,
or anie other, sail enter within the close or lianit parts of the wood with their
beasts or cattell." — Forest Laws, c. i. s. 1.

84 Transactions of the [Sess.

anon by the Scots, until more peaceful times intervened, and law
was re-established. Several members of the Scottish nobility then
successively received tacks of the whole estate, including, amongst
other honours and privileges, the sheriffdom of the county, the right
to the burgh customs, and occasionally the office of provost. From
about 1480 to 1630 The Haining was held by a branch of the Scotts
of Buccleuch. The Scotts were followed by the ancient family of
the Eiddells, and these again by the Pringles — a descendant of the
latter family being now in possession. The Pringle family has not
been wanting in illustrious names, two at least being " men of
mark" in Scotland — viz., John Pringle, Lord Haining, appointed
a senator in 1729 ; and Andrew Pringle, Lord Alemoor, elevated to
the bench in 1759. ■*•

The Haining occupies a somewhat elevated position, the "bench-
mark " at the main gateway being given in the Ordnance Survey
map as 495 feet above the sea. Several portions of the estate are
at a much higher elevation — for, as every one knows, Selkirk is
pre-eminently "a city set on a hill," and the town clusters in great
part round the slope of the estate. The grounds are thus beauti-
fully diversified, from their undulating nature, and are thickly planted
in many parts with trees and shrubs, which are in fine healthy con-
dition. Some splendid avenues are thus formed of Lime, Birch,
and Chestnut, from which glimpses of the lake and the family
mansion can be obtained. From elevated knolls, also, one can look
down on the haugh or valley of the Ettrick and Yarrow, and around
on the encircling hills. Perched on such an outlook, the words of
Dr John Brown, in ' Minchmoor,' may partly be realised in their
truth and beauty. He says : " The great, round-backed, kindl}^,
solemn hills of Tweed, Yarrow, and Ettrick lay all about like sleep-
ing mastiffs, — too plain to be -grand, too ample and beautiful to be
commonplace." No one but the genial author of ' Eab and his
Friends ' could have penned such a sentence as that ! The Hain-
ing thus holds out attractions both for the botanist and for the lover
of nature, — in which latter category, indeed, every true botanist is
included.

I was very fortunate, in my first visit to The Haining in August
last, in having as cicerone the Eev. Mr Farquharson, President of
the Berwickshire Naturalists' Field Club, whose picturesque manse
is in the vicinity. This gentleman kindly gave me some interest-
ing information as to the natural history of the estate and of the
district. Probably owing to the humidity of the climate, and the
absence of cold winds — the prevailing direction being S.W. — vege-
tation was most luxuriant. This was everywhere very noticeable :
moreover, the fronts of several of the houses in and around the
town were covered by the showy perennial Tropreolum speciosum,
^ Vide Chalmers, 'Caledonia,' vol. ii. p. 991.

1882-83.] Edinburgh Naturalists' Field Club. 85

— a plant which refuses to grow to any perfection in what may be
termed our Scottish midlands, though it is often seen well grown
in Inverness-shire and Perthshire, and again appears in fine condi-
tion in the southern counties of Scotland, Another curious fact
regarding this plant is, that " it does not prosper so well when
transferred to the milder climate of England." Its bright scarlet
blossoms, especially when mingled, as they at times were, with the
purple flowers of Clematis Jackmanii, were truly a memorable
sight. Particularly noteworthy, in this connection, was the lodge
at the entrance to Bowhill Avenue, about three miles from Selkirk,
the front of which has been covered annually, for a number of years,
with this scarlet creeper. But to return to The Haining : one of
its chief features is the sheet of water named The Plaininjr Loch.
The water of this loch at one time stood much hiirher than it now
does, coming up close to the mansion-house. But on a child of the
family falling from a window into the loch, and being drowned, an
outlet was made which caused the water to fall considerably, and
consequently to recede some distance from the house. The water
is of a dark-brown colour, wliicli hue it has assumed gradually,
during a long course of years, fi'om the increase of a cateniform
conferva. In this loch are said to be many interesting objects for
the microscopist ; and, like many other waters, it swarms with the
common Water-flea [Cyclops quadricornis). So early as 1661 the
loch was the cause of litigation on the part of the mayor of Berwick,
who brought a case into the Court of Session on the plea that foul
water from it killed many of the Salmon in the Tweed. The mayor,
however, lost his suit, as the learned judge gave his decision on
the broad principle of physical law, that "rivers are the natural
drainage-system of the country " ! ^ As already noticed. The Hain-
ing mansion-house stands near the margin of the loch, and at the
lower end of it, thus commanding a view of its whole extent. The
present house has been in great part rebuilt in a modern style, of
whinstone and freestone, with handsome colonnaded porticos to
the main front and water front, A number of valuable antique
statues, in bronze and marble, surround the terrace.

As regards the plants to be found within the grounds, there are
several of our familiar favourites, which need not be enumerated
here. The following may be noticed, however. The Amphibious
Buckwheat [Polygonum amphibium) grows very luxuriantly in and
around the loch, forming a marked feature when in flower. The
common Yellow Water-Lily [Nvpltar lutea) is also very abundant ;
and the Great White Water - Lily [Nymphcea alba) is present in

^ This (as well as a few other facts concerning The Haining) is given on
the authority of T. Craig-Brown, Esq. of Woodburn — a gentleman who is
well known for his intimate acquaintance with the anti(iuiti6s of the ancient
burgh.

86 Transactions of the [Sess.

lesser quantity, but very pretty when its large white floating blossoms
unfold. The Great Eeed-naace [Typha latifolia) has been introduced ;
and alongside it is the Common Reed [Phragmites communis). Strong,
well developed plants of the Tway-blade [Listera ovata) are plenti-
ful at the Tipper part of the lake. Turning to the pastures, there
are to be found the Adder' s-tongue Fern [Ophioglossum vulgatum)
and the Moonwort [Botrychium lunaria) — both, but the latter espe-
cially, much "nibbled over" by sheep. The Great Butterfly Orchis
[Hahenaria chlorantha) and the Green Frog-Orchis {H. viridis) are
also growing in the same situations. The marshy parts of the
estate contain, besides other plants, numbers of Carices, among
them being Carex teretiuscula, C. paniculata, C. pallescens, C. syl-
vatica, and C. paludosa.

But any description of The Haining would be quite incomplete
without a reference to the numbers of wild and domesticated water-
fowl which at once enliven and embellish the loch. By the kind-
ness of the proprietor, I am enabled to give a list of these : —

List of Water-Fowl on The Haining Loch, October 1882.

White Call Ducks.
Brown Call Ducks.

Shieldrakes.

White Swan.

Black Swan.

Swan Geese.

White Chinese Geese.

Brown Chinese Geese.

Canada Geese.

Bean Geese.

Laughing Geese.

Egyptian Geese.

Brent Geese.

American Runner Ducks,

Pekin Ducks.

Cayuga Ducks.

Aylesbury Ducks.

Rouen Ducks.

Black Indian Drakes.
Tufted Pochard.
Red-headed Pochard.

Teal.
Grebe.
Bald-Coots.
Water-Hen.
Water-Rail.
Herons.

Wild Ducks or Mallards.
&c. &c.

The Heron [Ardea cinerea) is a frequent visitant to The Haining ;
while the Black-headed or Laughing Gull [Larus ridlbundiis) breeds
there, in what is called tlie Pic-maw Moss, making its presence
very evident by the peculiar cry from which it derives its trivial
name. The small birds are none of them particularly noteworthy,
so far as I can learn. The modest little Tree-creeper (Certhia
familiaris) is common ; and the Starling [Stumus vidgaris) abundant.
The walk round the margin of the loch is a very pleasant one.
On the south-west side a line of Birches and Chestnuts, drooping
over towards the water, forms a natural arcade ; while the opposite
side is thickly planted with Laurels, Berberis, Hollies, Dwarf Coni-
fers, Ehododendrons, and other shrubs. Some very fine trees, also,
are dotted over the grounds, particularly Horse - Chestnuts and
Scotch Firs. One widespreading Chestnut, which might rival

1S82-83.] Edinburgh Naturalists' Field Glib. ^1

Loiiarfellow's celebrated tree under which stood the " village
smithy," I found measured fifty feet through the lower branches ;
and several others, almost as large and as beautiful in their sym-
metry, were growing near. Beyond this point is the deer-park,
stocked with Kcd Deer.

Such are the principal featui'es of The Haining : and perhaps
enough lias been said regarding it to show that it will well repay a
visit. Many beautiful and well-known spots, besides, are clustered
near, — names round which the " Minstrel of the Border " has woven
the magic of his verse, and the praises of which have been sung by
the Ettrick Shepherd and the Cumberland Bard. Amid such scenes
one would fain linger, while fancy peoples them with the forms of
the past, and the mind is soothed and the eye enchanted by the
beauty of the present.

[In illustration of the above, a number of photographic views, by Mr A.
K. Edwards, Photographer, Selkirk, were exhibited.)

X.— PITLOCHRY AND ITS BIRD-LIFE.

By Mr ARCH. CRAIG, Jun.

{Read Jan. 25, 1883.)

It may seem a somewhat trite remark to observe in connection with
Pitlochry, that the district is an eminently beautiful one, the great
I^artialit^y shown for the neighbourhood by tourists and other sum-
mer visitors being of itself almost sufficient evidence, without dilat-
ing on its peculiar attractions, to warrant the assertion. Briefly
stated, the scenery shows the same endless variety that is so char-
acteristic a feature of our Northern Highlands, comprising all
gradations, from the desolate muirland to the richly wooded and
cultivated haughs, watered by the rivers Tummel and Garry, —
these being swelled in turn by the numerous tributaries that have
their origin in the muirs above, and to whose agency we are in-
debted for the many picturesque little glens that lend additional
charm to the locality. The woods especially call for particular
notice, from their extraordinary richness and diversity of character,
- — many of the trees, notably about Faskally, Killiecrankie, and sur-
roundings, having attained to considerable age, and, from their
large proportions and curious growth, ofter great scope for the
display of artistic and photographic talent.

In addition to the scenic effects, there is no lack of Ferns, Mosses,
and other botanical treasures, to engage the attention of the botan-

88 Transactions of the [Sess.

ist, besides also the historic interest that attaches to the vicinity,
embracing reminiscences of the old and savage clan feuds, as well
as the more modern and — to us at anyrate — more interesting battle-
field of Killiecrankie. And when to these are conjoined the still
older relics of the past that exist in the standing-stones and ancient
hill camps, enough has been said in support of the claim of Pit-
lochry to rank high among the many lovely summer retreats with
which our Highlands abound. Were it not foreign to the purpose
of the present paper, a great deal might be written concerning the
scenery alone ; but having regard to the largeness of such a sub-
ject as the " Bird-life " of any particular district, and the impossi-
bility of doing the scantest justice even to it in a short sketch,
nothing further need be said on that score.

It will readily be understood that a locality possessing so varied
a landscape, and so well sheltered in the low grounds by the thick
woods and luxuriant vegetation, is more than likely to contain a
correspondingly large variety of birds, and, so far as Pitlochry is con-
cerned, such is undoubtedly the case. In proof of this, a glance at
the subjoined list of forty-eight birds, aU of which were observed in
four days, without, be it understood, any special effort being made
to discover them, may go far to show that if all these species could
be noted in so short a time, how large a number might it not be
possible to add during a constant residence, with of course the
requisite amount of trouble taken to identify and note the occur-
rence of every visitant. Undoubtedly the largest number and
variety of the smaller birds frequent the woods which border the
river Garry in the Pass of Killiecrankie, or the Tummel in its
course from the loch of the same name. Prominent among them
is the Eedstart, one of our prettiest plumaged summer migrants,
whose chastely contrasted garb (particularly that of the male)
attracts notice at first sight, and fairly entitles it to be classed
among the elite of small birds. On first arrival both sexes are
rather wary and jealous of a near approach ; but when actually
settled down to the duties of incubation, a great deal of their
natural timidity and shyness vanishes, so much so that intrusion
on their nesting-ground causes them to fly excitedly near at hand,
in a jerking, flirting sort of manner, observable at times in the
Eobin as well, uttering meanwhile a clear mellow whistle, which
strikes the hearer as being singularly appealing and plaintive. In
the Pass large numbers had built their nests in the walls at the
road-side, the loose character of the masonry giving ample scope
for that purpose ; but others again appeared to prefer sites among
the roots of trees and in broken banks. Although found in greatest
abundance in the low grounds, as also in gardens, parks, and hedge-
rows close to human habitations, this species does not always court
publicity, as amidst the dense and dark Pine-woods covering the

1882-83] Edinburgh Naturalists' Fie/d C/nb. 89

liills in many parts of the Highlands; and which are shunned as a
general rule by most species, a pair of Kedstarts may often be
found, attention being called to their presence by the shoi't though
sweet song of the male, which in such situations falls on the ear
with greater acceptance from the oppressive gloom and silence that
pertains to these regions, as well as to the scarcity of any other
melody to form a contrast. The Bullfinch also is a tenant of tlie
Pass, although not so numerous as the last. Various causes com-
bine to prevent its increase, or rather to hasten its decrease, — the
demand for it as a cage pet being a fertile source of diminution.
Severe winters also make havoc among its numbers. But perhaps
a more potent cause than either is to be found in the wanton
slaughter perpetrated by gardeners, many of wliom wage continual
war against the little birds in spring-time. The reason of tliis
hostility is the damage presumably wrought on the young buds of
fruit-trees. But although harm to a certain extent is without
doubt committed, in the opinion of many competent to judge the
injury is unnecessarily exaggerated. The question naturally arises
to our minds, supposing it to be actually the case that fruit-trees are
destroyed so considerably as horticulturists would have lis believe,
how does it happen that other trees in a wild state, such as Geans,
Sloes, &c., do not seem to suffer? Yet it is notorious that the
Bullfinch shows a similar penchant for the buds of these, which,
notwithstanding, bear fruit in spite of his efforts. Even granting
for the moment that gardeners' statements are absolutely true,
surely few people possessed of any humane feeling would grudge
the birds the little they would take, the pleasure to be derived
from observing the handsome little creatures in the full enjoyment
of life being to many sufficient compensation for the non-appearance
of a few apples or sour plums. Prejudices of that kind are, how-
ever, always difficult to contend with, more especially when the
mistaken notions have been believed in without any attempt to
justify them by actual observation, as is the case with many who
never think it worth their while to look at the question from any
other standpoint save their own. But with the increasing educa-
tional influences of the present time more liberal and enlightened
ideas may be looked for, and then perhaps better days and kindlier
treatment will be in store for the pretty and interesting little
Bullfinches.

Among the common species that haunt the locality, and which
it is unnecessary to do more than name, are the Blackbird, Hedge-
accentor, Robin, Greenfinch, and Chaffinch — the Latin synonym of
the latter, which signifies a " bachelor," owing its origin to a habit
that induces the sexes to separate and keep by themselves in
winter, — a fact which seems now to be indubitably established.
About the village and adjacent farm-steadings the well-known and

go Transactions of the [Sess.

despised Sparrow propagates his species plentifully enough to call
down on his head the execrations of the farming community, whose
scanty crops are certainly not rendered more valuable by his pre-
dilection for grain diet. But, in common with all granivorous
birds, he has his light as well as his dark side, being a considerable
destroyer of grubs and insects during the nesting season, so that it
is a moot-point whether his good qualities, if fairly weighed, would
not counterbalance his bad. Another bird much vilified by agri-
culturists for the same and other reasons is the Eook, but in his
case the redeeming qualities seem to preponderate. Endowed with
a most accommodating appetite, to which no edible substance ever
seems to come amiss, he plays the part of scavenger during spring
and winter to perfection ; and when we consider the extraordinary
extent and variety of his cuisine^ and the apparently equal relish
with which he fliTctuates from grubs and snails to eggs or grain,
from fresh to rotten meat and other garbage, we cannot but think
with wonder and admiration on his digestive powers, which are
certainly of no ordinary kind. It is patent to all that the Eook is
not what one with any regard to truth would term a songster, his
usual cry being diametrically opposed to what we understand by
melody. But, nevertheless, he at times solaces himself with a few
notes widely different from the harsh and well-known " caw." This
musical freak is perpetrated by a solitary bird who sits on some
prominent place, and then gives birth to a gurgling sound ; and
judging from the quaint antics accompanying his efforts, he seems
to derive intense satisfaction therefrom, although the same feelings
of delight do not generally find a responsive echo in the breast . of
the human listener.

The only other specimen of the Corvidas noticed was the Jack-
daw,— the remainder, such as the Carrion and Hooded Crows,
Magpies, &c., as well as the nobler Falconidas and Strigidte, being
apparently in the fair way to become extinct — thanks to the per-
petual persecution of gamekeepers and trappers, abetted by sports-
men, whose mania for game preservation is fast reducing the
numbers to a minimum, and at the same time depriving the natu-
ralist of the opportunity of studying the habits of birds of prey
from life, a circumstance to be regretted by all practical ornitho-
logists. The only Hawk observed was on the slope of Ben Vrackie,
a high mountain immediately behind the village. The species, so
far as could be determined from a distance, was that of the Sparrow-
Hawk, most likely a female from its size, and its sudden appear-
ance on the scene had the effect of silencing a Curlew or '' Whaup,"
who had been making the air ring for some time with her quivering
whistle of distress, engendered by the inadvertent intrusion on her
nesting-ground. In the same locality, which was just at the limit
where the few straggling thickets of Fir-trees ended and the bare

1882-83.] Edinburgh Naturalists Field Club. 91

wide muir began, the Cuckoos had evidently found their proper
element, as on all sides the familiar note — the reiteration of their
own name — was to be heard. In fact, the whole country-side
abounded with them ; and by dint of hiding and exercising a little
patience, a very fair view could be obtained of individual birds,
who would remain seated on the same spot for a considerable time,
so long as the presence of a stranger was undetected. While
resting on a rock, our attention was attracted by a most curious
noise, resembling the snarling of an ill-natured terrier dog. It was
evident from the locality that the sound could not emanate from
one of those disagreeable quadrupeds, but must be accounted for
in some other way ; yet witli every effort to find out the cause,
half an hour elapsed ere the authorship of it was traced to a female
Grouse, whose plumage harmonised so admirably with the sur-
rounding heather as to render detection wellnigh impossible.
Further investigation led to the discovery that while accom-
jjanying a flock of lately fledged "cheepers," not much larger
than Sparrows, she had been startled, and in the interests of self-
preservation had taken flight, leaving, of course, the young ones
behind. The peculiar growling sound was then either a call of
distress, or intended as a signal to the small fry to indicate her
whereabouts — the latter the more likely solution of the two. Tlie
Meadow Pipit, as usual, was abundant on the muir ; and on the
dry-stone dykes dividing the pasture-land from the hill, several
pairs of Wheatears flitted about, showing a great amount of restless
anxiety for the safety of their young, which, judging from the time
of year, must have been nearly ready to fly. As is matter of
notoriety, the click-clicking notes of this species have originated
the lowland Scotch appellation of " Stane-chacker," and the Graelic
" Clacharan." Another specimen of the Saxicolina?, which it is a
pleasure to record as inhabiting the district, is the Whinchat, a
most interesting little bird, all the more so from its local distribu-
tion in Scotland. In certain favoured localities this species,
although nowliere very numerous, may be said to be not un-
common ; whereas in others, which to the outward eye seem quite
as well suited to its requirements, it is very rarely observed, and
in some cases absolutely unknown. The Whinchat does not ap-
pear to live at such a high altitude as the Wheatear, the last named
in that respect being more ubiquitous, as it is found in the valleys
as well as on the mountain slopes. No fewer than three pairs had
taken up their quarters close to the village and parish kirk of
Moulin, and contiguous to an old ruin known as " Chaistel Dubh,"
in its palmy days reported to have been a stronghold of the Earls
of Athole, but which at the present time is remarkable for nothing
save its filth, and a total lack of interest to even the most enthu-
siastic arch^ologist. The Corn-Crake, although unseen, was not

92 ' Transactions of the [Sess.

unheard, as in all the hay and grain fields the grating sound was
audible at intervals — not, however, with the same monotonous
frequency as it would have been a month earlier, as, after the eggs
are laid and the young hatched, the somewhat unlovable love-song
of the male gradually decreases in intensity, until it finally dies
away altogether. The absurd idea that Landrails cannot fly, which
commends itself to so many people, is perhaps due to the fact
that the birds in the first instance invariably endeavour to seek
safety by running swiftly along the ground under cover of the long
herbage, or skulk behind bushes, hedges, or in ditches ; and it is
only when hard pressed that they venture to take wing. Of the
Hirundinidffi, the Swift, House -Martin, and Sand-Martin were
plentiful — the Chimney Swallow not being noticed, although that
was in all likelihood owing to accident, rather than to the fact of
its non-existence. By the river-side the Oyster-Catchers or Sea
Pyets were tolerably numerous, flying up and down the course of
the stream, and emitting as they went the strange cry which is an
unfailing index to the species. The appearance of these maritime
birds among the woods and glens so far removed from their natural
element seems somewhat of an anomaly, and smacks so much of
the sea breeze as to make it difficult for us to become reconciled to
their presence in such opposite quarters from those they usually
haunt. Nevertheless they are decided ornaments to the district, —
the clearly defined black and white of the plumage, which forms so
marked and beautiful a contrast, lending to them an air of distinc-
tion which goes far to obliterate any notions we may have enter-
tained of their presence being incongruous. Oyster-Catchers are
not singular, however, in their habit of breeding inland, as many
Gulls and other sea-going species do the same. In exemplification
of this, let any one cross the hill from Portnacraig Ferry to Grand-
tully, near Aberfeldy. The track (it does not attain to the dignity
of a road) runs uphill for about two miles or so, until a compara-
tively flat waste of bog-land is reached, dotted over which are a
number of small tarns, where in summer great gatherings of Gulls,
chiefly the common Lams ridibimdus, find sufiicient seclusion to
perform the labours of incubation in peace. Close to the largest
of these tarns is a memento of bygone days in the form of thi'ee
curious standing-stones, whose existence gives an interest to an
otherwise desolate locality, and rather adds to than detracts from
the weird aspect. When Gulls are nesting, they strongly object
to being intruded upon, and if emboldened by numbers, will dash
so uncomfortably near to one's face and head as often to preclude
the possibility of approaching safely to the water's edge. Besides
the ordinary screaming noise, they yelp like little curs in their
rage, and clearly show by their persistent efforts that, so far as the
interloper is concerned, they would much prefer his room to his

1882-83.] Edinburgh Naturalists' Field Club. 93

company. In fact, so pertinacious are they at times, that they will
follow a person for a mile and more, every now and again swooping
unexpectedly down so close to the head as to make one tremble for
the safety of his eyesight. In this wild district also the Eedshank
and Peewit were busily engaged in the same object of propagating
the species.

There is a certain indescribable charm about muirland scenery,
especially when associated with its bird-life, that must have struck
one who has passed any time amid such scenes, — whether owing
to the complete solitude and desolate aspect, the antithesis of the
livelier woodland or cultivated country, or to the strange wild cries
of the feathered species, or to both combined, would be difficult to
determine. Somehow or other, we always associate the " eerie "
calls of the Peewit, Whaup, and Plover with bleak and barren
country, although we know that for a great part of the year the
muirs are deserted by these birds. Yet whatever the reason, it
seems more natural to our minds to couple them together. Curi-
ously enough, the weirdest and most melodious sounds are often
heard in close proximity, as the melancholy whistle of the Plover
or the complaining cry of the Lapwing mingle with the song of
the Skylark and Meadow-pipit, which frequently choose the same
locality for their nesting-ground. Another bird whose home lies
among the muirs or the hilly slopes bordering on them is the Eing-
ousel, perhaps the most interesting of all the Turdidge or Thrushes.
Distinguished from its congener the Blackbird by the browner tint
of plumage, and the white crescent on the breast, it has yet a good
deal in common with its near relative, the skulking habits and call
of alarm being somewhat similar. But there the likeness, except
in a few minor points, ends, as in choice of habitation it is widely
different. Where broom or juniper -bushes cover the mountain-
slopes, the Eing-ousel may generally be found, one pair seeming to
monopolise a considerable tract to themselves. But perhaps a more
usual place of abode, in the Highlands at least, is on the heathery
hillsides or the rugged banks of an upland burn, where, under the
protecting shelter of an overhanging rock or heather bush, the nest
is often placed. For some time after their arrival in April, no
birds are wilder or more difficult to approach. You may at a
respectful distance see the pair sitting on a knoll or rock keeping
a sharp look-out ; but attempt to draw near, and off they fly to
some other point of vantage, where they can scan the neighbour-
hood and avoid the apprehended danger. To follow them up when
once alarmed is useless, the experiment reqiiiring a greater amount
of patience than has fallen to the lot of the average naturalist. But
after the eggs are laid or the young hatched, the desired view may
be much more readily obtained, their shyness disappearing in a
great measure. The song of the male, which is heard to the best

VOL. I. G

94 Transactions of the [Sess.

advantage very early in the morning or towards the close of even-
ing, is not distinguished by much variety, being merely a repetition
of the same wild note — a sound, though monotonous, admirably
in accordance with the dreary character of the surroundings amidst
which it is uttered.

Eeverting once more to the valleys, we find that on the rivers
the Water Ousel and Common Sandpiper are of frequent occurrence,
the latter migrant more particularly. The former harmless creature
is unfortunate enough to come under the ban of gamekeepers and
others who are interested in salmon-fishing, and is consequently an
object on which to exercise their spleen, the supposed destruction
of ova being the cause of resentment. But of all the absurd perse-
cutions with which we are unhappily too conversant in Scotland,
this seems to be the least justifiable, our most eminent naturalists
having pointed out over and over again that the damage done is
more imaginary than real. The Pied and Grey Wagtails are a
most elegant addition to the fauna of the district, the last named
being on the whole a closer sojourner by the sides of streams than
the other, as well as a more frequent percher upon trees. While
passing through the forest near Faskally, we had an opportunity of
verifying the marked animosity of small birds to the Owl species.
A loud and angry chattering suddenly arose in a bare part of the
wood, and on moving in the direction of the sound, the cause was
at once apparent. A large Tawny Owl having, xmfortunately for
itself, ventured into the open, its presence was at once the signal
for all the small birds in the immediate vicinity (Chaffinches, Tits,
Blackbirds, &c.) to assemble in force, and endeavour, by dint of
loud screaming and fluttering, to drive it away. The poor wretch
seemed most uncomfortable under the trying ordeal, and flew from
tree to tree in vain endeavours to get rid of its tormentors, but they
persistently followed ; and although it was doubtful if they actually
touched it, yet by their yelpings, so to speak, they contrived to
make themselves sufficiently insufferable. At last a haven of refuge
opened to it in the shape of a dense clump of Spruce-firs, into which
it flew, and thus eluded further pursuit. Small birds evince this
inherent dislike to predatory species in the case of Hawks as well,
by frequently chasing them from place to place, but not always
with impunity, as the Hawk does not labour under the same disad-
vantage as the Owl in daylight ; consequently he often turns the
tables on his pesterers, and becomes the pursuer instead of the pur-
sued. In the Pass of Killiecrankie and the woods of Bonskeid the
Tree-pipit abounded, a lively although not gaily attired species,
whose pleasant little song is always an agreeable forerunner of
genial summer weather. The Common Wren betrayed its exist-
ence— which, from the nature of the covert it frequents, would other-
wise be overlooked — by its song, unusually loud when we consider

1882-83.] Edinlmrgh Nahiralists Field Club. 95

the size of the bird. In fact, if all birds emitted sound in propor-
tion to their bulk, taking the Wren as our basis, we would look for
a noise little short of thunder from the Blackbird or others of simi-
lar calibre. The Spotted Flycatcher could be readily detected from
the peculiar manner of catching its prey, but on the whole seemed
to be rather sparsely distributed, considering the apparent suita-
bility of the ground. Of the Bunting family, the Yellow-hammer
could be heard whistling his rather monotonous and melancholy
note in all the fields around the village. The senseless but now
almost defunct superstition regarding this beautiful little bird is a
matter with which most people are tolerably conversant, but for
the benefit of those who may be unaware of its existence, a veiy
few words may be devoted to the subject. Within the memory .of
many still living, it was believed by the generality of country folks
to be in some manner or other mysteriously connected with the
Arch-Enemy himself. The zeal of our ancestors in the cause of
so-called religion was of so ardent a nature (although it is at the
same time notorious that their own private characters would not
always bear strict investigation), that they necessarily felt it a duty
to " abjure the devil and all his works " — especially his works. So
the unfortunate Yellow- Yorlin being one of these, it fell imder their
proscription, and was destroyed whenever occasion offered. This
silly notion had evidently a common origin with those grosser
superstitions that led to the burning of witches and similar acts of
intolerant cruelty. But as in these more enlightened times such
deeds are impossible, so also the aversion to the harmless bird is
gradually dying out. It has not wholly disappeared, however, as
in a few districts of the Highlands the belief still smoulders in the
breasts of the older portion of the community, who have all the
will to put their dislike into action, but, deterred by the better
sense of the younger generation, have no resource left them but
to imitate the example of that pattern of amiability, Tam o' Shanter's
wife, and " nurse their wrath to keep it warm."

There now remain only two classes of birds to notice — viz., the
Titmice and Warblers. Of the former, the Great Tit, Blue Tit, and
Cole Tit were as usual numerous among the woods and copses.
Perhaps no order of birds save the Swallows display such constant
and restless activity, being perpetually on the move hunting for
food, and in their search clinging to the trunks and branches of
trees in a variety of fantastic attitudes that cannot fail to call forth
admiration, more particularly from the ease and grace with which
the changing motions are performed. The most beautifully dressed
of all the group is undoubtedly the Blue Tit or Blue Bonnet ; and
being a more frequent visitor to the neighbourhood of houses and
gardens than the Cole or Long-tailed species, it is on that account
more easily observed, the other two affecting Pine forests and

96

Transactions of the

[Sess.

woods where there is sufficient abundance of large timber to
guarantee a supply of food. Unlike most small birds, the Tits
are bold and fearless in disposition, and if caught will show fight
at once by furiously biting the hand of the captor, nothing daunted
by the disproportion that exists between their own size and that of
their adversary. The last but not least in point of interest are the
Warblers, which at this late stage it would be impossible to do
justice to : a simple mention of their names must therefore suffice.
Placing them in the order of numbers, though not of merit, they
occurred as follows : Willow Wrens, Wood Wrens, Whitethroats,
Sedge Warblers, and lastly Garden Warblers or Blackcaps. From
want of a near view, it could not be decided which of the two latter
inhabited the district, but from later experience of both species in
another part of Scotland, we incline to the belief that it was the
Blackcap.

An apology is due for the very superficial glance taken of the
various species ; but from their number it would scarcely be pos-
sible, even were it desirable, to enter more fully into the merits of
each ; and, in conclusion, it only remains for us to say to those
who hitherto have not paid much attention to ornithology, that if
at any future time they should decide to take up the study, they will,
without doubt, find it to be one of surpassing interest.

Blackbird, Turdus meriila.
Bullfinch, Pyrrhula europect.
Chafiinch, Fringilla codebs.
Corn-crake, Crex pratensis.
Creeper, Certhia /amiliaris.
Cuckoo, Cucidus canorus.
Curlew, Numenius arquata.
Flycatcher, spotted, Muscicapa gri-

sola.
Greenfinch, Coccothraustes chloris.
Grouse, red, Lagopus scoticus.
Gull, black-headed, Larus ridibundus.
Jackdaw, Corvus monedida.
Martin, house, CheUdon urbica.

„ sand, Cotile riparia.
Ousel, ring, Turdus torquatus.

,, water, Cinclus aquaticus.
Owl, tawny, Strix aluco.
Oyster-catcher, Hcematopus ostralegus.
Peewit, Vanellus cristatus.
Pipit, meadow, Anthus pratensis.

,, tree, Anthus arbor eus.
Redshank, Totanus calidris.
Redstart, Ruticilla phcenicurus,
Robin, Erithacus rubecula.
Rook, Corvus frugilegus.

Sandpiper, common, Totanus hypo-

leucos.
Skylark, Alauda arvensis.
Sparrow-hawk, Accipiter nisus.
Sparrow, hedge, Accentor modularis.

,, house, Passer domesticus.

Starling, Sturnus vulgaris.
Swift, Gypsdus apus.
Thrush, missel, Turdus viscivorus.
Tit, blue, Parus cosruleus.
,, cole, Parus ater.
,, great, Parus major.
Wagtail, grey, Motacillla sulphurea.

,, pied, Motacilla higubris.

Warbler, blackcap, Sylvia atricapilla.

,, garden (?), Sylvia salicaria.

,, sedge, Salicaria phragmitis.

,, whitethroat, Sylvia rufa.

,, willow, Phylloscopus tro-
chilus.

,, wood, Phylloscopus sibila-

trix.
Wheatea*', Saxicola osnanthe.
Whinchat, Saxicola rubetra.
Wren, Troglodytes jjarvidus.
Yellow-hammer, Emberiza citrinella.

1882-83.] Ediiihirgh Naturalists Field Club. 97

XL—THE PENTLAND SKERRIES.

By Mr T. M. CRUICKSHANK, South Ronaldshat.

{Commionicatcd Jan. 25, 1883.)

XII.— AN APRIL TRIP TO SOUTH RONALDSHAY

By Mr ROBERT THOMSON, LL.B.

{Read Feb. 22, 1883.)

(The above papers having appeared in the ' Orkney Herald,' are
therefore not reproduced here.)

XIII.—A GOSSLP ABOUT PETS.

By Mr ROBERT STEAVART, S.S.C.

(Bead Feb. 22, 1883.)

It has been our good fortune to have had many friends among the
so-called low^er animals, and we propose, therefore, to introduce a
few of the most uncommon of them. Before, however, allowing
our first friend, a dog, to make his bow, we might say a word or
two regarding the tricks which many animals are able to perform.
In teaching an animal accomplishments, the first thing to be done is
to make friends with the scholar. Having made friends, it is next
necessary to get the animal's undivided attention, and thereafter to
put it thoroughly at its ease. There is a time and a place for
everything, and if the attention of our friend is taken up with other
matters, it is of little use trying to persuade it to do anything,
charm we ever so wisely. Patience is perhaps of most use in the
process of training ; and this includes command of temper. Most
animals are exceedingly sensitive, and a cross word, or sometimes
even an angry look, undoes in a moment the result of many pre-
vious lessons. Fierce animals are not necessarily the most difficult
to train, and in many instances they best repay the labour ex-
pended on their behalf. Sullen or too easy tempered animals are
difficult to manage ; and those are to be preferred who are in pos-
session of some spirit, even though it be a bad one. A dog who
follows everybody is of no use to anybody ; and to the saying
regarding certain individuals who are nobody's enemies but their

98 Trmisactions of the [Sess.

own, ought to be added, " nor anybody's friends, — not even their

own."

And now for our particular friends. And first, a word about
dogs. A great deal has been written concerning these animals ;
but notwithstanding this, we are tempted to say a word or two
regarding Twist, seeing we consider he is entitled to be placed on
a higher pedestal than the most of even clever dogs. He was the
size of an ordinary terrier, and had short bandy legs, and a broad
powerful chest. He would have been positively ugly were it not
for his intelligent-looking face, which made one forget all about his
make. He was of no particular breed, but of that serviceable class
known as mongrel. His first exploit came about in this wise. In
a district where dairies are unknown, we had, in common with
other lads, to bring our supply of milk every morning from a
neighbouring farm. On these journeys our constant companion
was a small terrier of the softer breed, which had only its affec-
tionate nature and pretty appearance to recommend it. One morn-
ing it was set upon by a large watch-dog and severely worried ;
and not only so, but this was repeated on every possible subse-
quent occasion, so that reluctantly we thought it the best plan to
leave Foxey at home. _He appeared so hurt at this, however, that
it was resolved to try and get Twist to form one of the party,
knowing that if he did so the proceedings would, so far as we were
concerned, be pleasantly varied. Strange to say, the expected
happened. It was a rich treat to see Foxey's behaviour as we
approached the place where the enemy usually lay in wait. In-
stead of cowering at the heel, he got briskly to the front — always,
however, keeping an eye on his friend's movements. The big dog,
who had as usual been in ambush, came on with a rush, and did
not observe the addition to the party until it was too late, for before
he could beat a retreat, which he seemed inclined to do, he was
pounced upon by Twist, and received then and there such a
thrashing, as ensured our passing and repassing daily the scene of
the conflict, without receiving any unpleasant attentions on the
part of the once dreaded foe. On another occasion a message was
received that Twist's services were in instant requisition in connec-
tion with the relief of a terrier which had been put into a cask for
the purpose of killing a couple of rats : but a hitch had occurred,
and by the dog's cries it seemed as though the proceedings were
being reversed, and that the rats were having the best of it. Twist
was without ceremony lifted, and was dropped, nothing loth, into
the cask, when the rats received their quietus in a couple of bites,
and immediately thereafter there arose from the cask an unearthly
howl that told at once its own tale. Twist, from insuflScient in-
structions, was under the impression that he had to kill all the
occupants of the cask, and having despatched the rats, immediately

1882-83.] Edinburgh Nahwalists' Field Club. 99

set upon the terrier with deadly intent, much to that creature's
horror and the owner's indignation, who seemed to consider the
remedy nmch worse than the disease. It was at that time the
height of our ambition to get a run tla-ough tlie woods with Twist ;
but as he had a supreme contempt for boys, it was difficult to enlist
him as a member of the expedition. If, however, he could be
coaxed within sight of the wood, the victory was ours, as Twist
dearly loved a hunt ; but to get him thus far we had to resort to
stratagem, and at regular intervals we threw him a piece of bread,
and so got him to follow bit by bit. But if the supply failed, or if
he considered the piece too small, or the distance too great, he had
no scruples in brealiing his implied contract, and would then turn
quietly on his heel and make for home. In addition to other
accomplishments, he would recover a stone thrown into a field of
standing corn with the same ease that he would take it from the
bottom of several of the deepest pools in the river. On returning
from a fishing expedition, it was customary to send Twist on before
to announce the arrival of the party, so that the patience of hungry
people would not be unduly taxed; and he would return again with-
out partaking of any food himself, even though it was proffered to
him. Every dog has his day, but Twist has more ; for even now
not a few recall with pleasure many enjoyable excursions under his
guidance, during which unwittingly they acquired much interesting
knowledge regarding bird and animal life.

The favourite of all the pets, however, was a beautiful squirrel,
which was caught when quite young. It quickly made friends
with all the other inhabitants, and exhibited a fearlessness and con-
fidence which made it particularly interesting. It had not the
slightest element of shyness in its composition, so far as animals of
any kind were concerned ; and I remember, on one occasion, a
member of the family having received a present of a large cat, it
became necessary that the new-comer be introduced to its future
companions. Accordingly the proceedings were opened by the in-
troduction of the squirrel, and, so far as the cat was concerned, they
ended there. The cat was made much of, and as it lay purring
contentedly on the knee, the squirrel was heard coming along the
passage, with the peculiar sound which the strange formation of
the hind legs gives to the movement of this animal over any hard
substance. On hearing his name called, he at once obe3^ed the
summons, and fearlessly climbed to where the cat lay, thrusting his
nose in its face. It was no use trying to hold the cat, for with a
terrified spring it made for the outer door, and disappeared, never
more to return. The squirrel's abode was a drawer of the kitchen
dresser, and it took possession of an old stocking therein, into
which it used to creep, where it lay as snug as possible. Occasion-
ally, however, it took a fancy to the pockets of one or other of the

loo^ Transactions of the [Sess.

jackets or coats which hung about, and it was no extraordinary
thing to hear its peculiar cry when rudely awakened, by the owner
putting the jacket or coat on. Sometimes the squirrel's presence
was not discovered until the owner had gained the street, and then
(for although Jack had no scruples in gambolling all over one,
yet he had a decided objection to any but a very privileged few
handling him) there usually ensued a severe struggle between
duty and inclination, the one pointing clearly to not allowing Jack
to get his freedom on the street ; the other, and the stronger, to let
him take his chance. But when the performance of one's duty was
likely, in all probability, to result in an intimate acquaintance with
the squirrel's teeth, it is no wonder that inclination often won the
day, and that the squirrel had its freedom if so inclined, even
though the possession of its liberty resulted, as it did on one occa-
sion, in reducing to utter helplessness a linen-draper, who, from his
look of horror, seemed to attribute the commotion among his win-
dow stock to some supernatural agency. The squirrel's chief de-
light was searching for nuts, and it was a common practice to
rattle nuts in the hand to call the squii-rel's attention, and after-
wards secrete tliem about the person. Immediately on hearing the
sound, the squirrel would come at a great rate on his searching
expedition, and, however cunningly the nuts were concealed, he
was not long in finding them out, and he never cared to commence
his feast until the whole of the nuts were safely stored away in one
or other of his storehouses. One day he was captured while on
one of his excursions to a neighbouring garden, and confined in a
cage with a wheel attached ; but before the expiry of the usual
statutory thirty days, the once merry little fellow died of a broken
heart.

In addition to the squirrel we had a ferret, which was, however,
only a pet to a few of us. I need hardly say that the long-suflering
female population fairly rebelled when it was proposed to give this
animal the run of the house, and its wanderings were consequently
confined within certain limits. The treatment which these animals
usually receive is most unnecessarily cruel. As many of you are
aware, ferrets are used for forcing rabbits out of their holes ; but the
great drawback to their use is the habit they have of what is
familiarly known as '' sticking in the hole." 'This happens when
the rabbits have been wounded or so frightened that they refuse to
move, even when the ferret gets to close quarters ; or perhaps
the rabbit gets into some hole where there is no bolt, when the
ferret kills it, and after sucking the blood coils itself up on the
carcase and goes to sleep. When this occurs, the only thing to
be done is to block up the hole and come back again next day,
when the prisoner is usually glad to get out. To prevent ferrets
catching and killing the rabbits, various methods are resorted to,

1882-83.] Edinburgh Naturalists' Field Club. lOi

all of tliein more or less cruel^ — such as stitcliing the under and
upper lips together, or tying the two jaws tightly together, both of
which methods entail immense suffering on the poor brutes. Break-
ing the teeth, also, is often resorted to where the ferrets are to be
used only in catching rabbits ; but when rats are to be hunted they
then require the whole benefit of their teeth. We proved by the
ferret in question that these muzzling precautions are quite unnec-
essary, and that all these animals require to make them more tract-
able is better treatment on the part of their owners. Surely it is
not wonderful that, seeing the only breath of air ferrets usually
get when in captivity is inhaled through the bars of a not over-
clean box, they resent this treatment, and when in possession of
their liberty take full advantage of it, and sometimes even refuse
to allow themselves to be taken' from an empty hole, and bolt back
the instant they see any one make an attempt to take hold of them.
The ferret we had was worked unmuzzled, and with unbroken teeth,
and he was so trained that he came at call. If we considered he
was too long in the burrow, we had only to pat with the hand in-
side the mouth of the hole, when he came at once and allowed him-
self to be lifted. These brutes seem to have no bones, which makes
it a difficult matter to handle them ; and any one not accustomed
to the process would find it imjDossible to lift one off the ground —
especially if the ferret is moving — without giving it an oi^portunity
of biting if so inclined. They can screw and twist themselves into
a hole which one would think a mouse would find a difficulty in
entering; and they can be rolled into a ball, and thereafter tied tightly
in a linen bag, without apparently suffering any great harm thereby.
This mode of carrying them is usually resorted to by poachers,
as the ferrets are prevented from moving in such a way as to attract^
the attention of any one passing — which they are apt to do if siuq^ly
carried loose — as, being of a restless disposition, they keep scratch-
ing with their feet at the lining of the pocket. In return for a
day's shooting, we gave the loan of our friend to the lessee of a
rabbit warren, who sent word in a few days that he had lost the
animal ; but we were quite sure that this was not the case, and
that the ferret was simply retained on account of his good qualities.
We had this consolation, however, that the gentleman would not
profit long by his ill-gotten gain, for we well knew that a few
weeks' ill-treatment would reduce our friend to the ordinary ferret
level. Most animals, as well as ferrets, are in a great measure
what man makes them, and we should never wish to have a quieter
pet than this usually fierce creature. Kindness has a wonderful
effect upon animals, and so has cruelty — which latter, however, is
often the result of ignorance and thoughtlessness. The most affec-
tionate and trustworthy dog we ever had came into our possession
with a character which was quite alarming. He had been kept con-

102 Transactions of the [Sess.

stantly on the chain, and little attention paid to him ; and at last
he became so fierce, that his food had to be given to him at the end
of a stable fork. Having broken his chain one day, he got into the
owner's house, the occupants of which speedily vanished ; and the
question came to be, how was the dog to be destroyed? This
never became necessary ; for on a few kind words being spoken
to him, and on his being quietly approached and his chain taken
off, he was tractable as a child, and thereafter proved his gratitude
by long years of faithful service and loving obedience.

In regard to the ferret's brother the weasel, and other animals at
present outside the pale of respectable society, it occurs to any one
who has given a thought to the matter that there is something
radically wrong in the incessant warfare which gamekeepers and
others wage against the animals known as vermin, which class has
been augmented of late years by the addition of Rooks and Wood-
pigeons. These outcasts often make the best pets, and no more
amusing friends can be had than Eavens, Hooded-Crows, Magpies,
Jackdaws, &c. In the indiscriminate war waged against vermin,
many innocent suffer with the guilty, and it is useless in most
cases to argue with the class of people in charge of game. But
even as regards Hawks, Hooded-Crows, Stoats, Weasels, and the
like, one is justified in thinking that game would be no scarcer, or
if scarcer, of a decidedly better quality, were these creatures
allowed to take their chance with others. " Live and let live " is a
wise motto, and they who upset the balance of nature are certain,
themselves to be the sufferers, — as witness those districts where the
inhabitants made a raid upon the small birds, with the result that
the place was soon thereafter infested to such an extent with all
manner of insects, that birds had to be brought from other quarters
to supply the place, in so far as that was possible, of those which
had been lately destroyed. If Hawks were allowed to live, they
would keep small birds in check ; and if small birds were let alone,
they would look after grubs, which do more harm to fruit than
whole regiments of Blackbirds. If it was not considered necessary
to stamp out the weasel and his relatives, rabbits would not at the
present time be the pests they are. The day will yet come, how-
ever, when ignorant men at cross-purposes will not be allowed to take
upon themselves the task of regulating the animal world, and kill
and slay the members thereof, not necessarily on account of crimes
committed, but seemingly only because it is the tradition of their
class that it is the proper thing to do. One would not have such a
right to complain if there was any method in the madness of the
believers in the vermin extermination theory, and if the vermin
suffered becaiise of the harm they were doing. But to kill, say for
instance, a Hawk, simply because he is a Hawk, is surely too bad.
Then as regards Owls : Owls have always been noted for their wise

1882-83.] Edinburgh Naturalists Field Cbib. 103

look and puzzled expression, but may not tliis arise from a too con-
stant consideration of the ways of this wicked world, and of the
problem why they, with only one bad habit — viz., prowling about
at night — are considered fair game for the exercise of the talents of
all the possessors of fowling-pieces, — from the urchin with his old-
fashioned muzzle-loader, to the owner of the double-barrelled breech
with all the latest improvements.

In addition to the four-footed animals, w^e had hosts of feathered
friends, all of them more or less interesting. Most small birds,
however, unless got when quite young, never do get reconciled to
captivity ; and when this is the case, it is a pity to keep them
caged up. Others, however, speedily make themselves at home,
and notably the Bullfinch, which we have repeatedly seen take
seeds out of the hand on the very day of its capture. Of the larger
birds, the most amusing was a Jackdaw, who occasionally ranged
about no one knew where, for he had perfect liberty, liis wings
never having been clipped. But, like a sensible fellow, he always
put in an appearance at dinner-time, and again when he wished to
retire for the night. Our friend was no exception to the general
Jackdaw failings, but he was no common thief, and only interfered
with such objects as he considered the owner held in special esteem.
Consequently it was not safe to have anything of value about, as
even the cat found with regard to her tail. In consequence of
numerous offences, he was presented to a nurseryman, and took to
his new quarters nicely ; but, as might be expected, it was not long
befoi-e he won fresh laiirels in his new situation. One niijht he of
design got shut up in the hothouse, and next morning it was found
he had been hard at work during the silent watches, having care-
fully collected all the *' tallies " into a heap on the floor, thereby
entailing an immense deal of trouble on his new master. He must
have been very fatigued ; but from his mischievous look and know-
ing croak, he seemed to consider that his master's indignation and
fruitless rage more than compensated him for any trouble he had
had. He fell a victim at last to his besetting sin, for some work-
men having left a quantity of white lead lying about, this substance
was first admired from a distance, then it underwent a nearer in-
spection, and finally was freely swallowed, with the result that our
black friend was gathered to his fathers, in what was to a Jackdaw
the flower of his youth.

And now let me say, in conclusion, that though animals can be
taught many really clever tricks, we cannot help thinking that, to
a certain extent, these so-called accomplishments are degrading to
our friends' talents, and our admiration on viewing them is tinged
with the same feeling of pity which we experience in witnessing
the agility or laughing at the antics of a circus clown. While
therefore, in certain circumstances, it is justifiable to have wild

104 Transactions of the [Sess.

animals as pets, or under control, still, if we wish to see them at
their best, we must of necessity make their acquaintance at their
own abodes. No doubt some of them are shy, and it is difficult in
many cases to gain their confidence, but we should not on this
account refuse to make the attempt, and in doing so, let us always
keep in mind that animals are partial to practical kindnesses, and
attach little importance to words without deeds. In some districts
the country people believe that the lady Chaffinch is averse to take
even her would-be husband on trust, and that when, during the
pairing season, he registers vows of eternal devotion, she receives
these with the cry of " Prove it ! prove it ! " Such being the case,
loe can hardly expect to walk at once into the good graces of our
four-footed or feathered friends, and more is expected of us than
protestations of attachment. But if we once "prove it," there is
no limit to the confidence and trust they will repose in us. How
can we prove it ? So far as our feathered friends are concerned,
the matter is simple. " The Society for Prevention of Cruelty to
Animals" does a good work, and all honour to its promoters and
supporters ; but we might go a step further, and supply a felt need,
by organising a company, the title of which sufiioiently explains
the objects thereof — namely, "The Society for Augmenting in
Winter the Smaller Livings of the Birds."

XIV.—SHAP SPA AND ITS SURROUNDINGS.
By Mr JOHN WALCOT. •
(Read Feb. 22, 1883.)

Shap Spa is situated in the very heart of the Westmoreland Fells.
It is near the foot of a plantation which covers the banks of a
mountain stream, and which skirts a triangular flower-garden, op-
posite to which stands the hotel. It is a solitary building, in a
sheltered spot, and to the front has a pleasant outlook. Five min-
utes' walk in any direction from the hotel enables the visitor to
overlook a vast stretch of moorland, surrounded on every side by
lofty hills covered with heather. Over this district any one may
wander without restraint ; and as it is almost houseless, and is
from 900 to 1500 feet above the sea-level, he may realise the fuU
benefit of quietness and ozone. The hotel has been in existence
for many years, and in its present improved condition is able to
accommodate from sixty to seventy persons. Fortunately adver-
tising is not one of its necessities, for its homely character, excel-
lent management, generous diet, and moderate charges have sufficed

1882-83.] EdiiibnrgJi Naturalists'' Field Club. 105

during every season to attract as many visitors as can be accom-
modated. In company with some lady friends, I visited this place
for the first time last autumn ; and from my experience of its
influence upon health, I was not surprised to learn that many per-
sons are not content with a yearly visit, but go whenever they feel
the need of rest and recruiting. Of these visitors, the late Mr
George Moore of London was one of the most frequent and appre-
ciative.

Whatever attractions this district may have for the invalid or the
jaded, it has equal attractions for the naturalist. There, if any-
where, he may find the opportunity of profitable and exciting toil.
Probably the geological features of the district will first of all arrest
his attention. These, speaking generally, consist of a wide stretch
of limestone on the high grounds to the north-east ; of a large
granite hill to the west ; of old red sandstone cropping up in the
river-beds and in the bank at the back of the hotel ; and of green
slates and porphyries (common in the Lake district) spreading
over the entire valley. The outcrop of granite in \yansdale Crao-
is worthy of special note. It forms one of the most conspicuous
hills in the district, and from its summit an extensive view can be
obtained. The granite of this hill is distinct from most of the
other granitic formations in the island, and is known by the desio--
nation of " Shap granite." It is easily recognised by the large
size of its crystals, and has acquired fame for its peculiar hardness
and durability, as well as for its attractive appearance. This hill
is now being energetically quarried by the Scottish Granite Com-
pany ; and the quarries are connected by a branch railway line with
extensive polishing works at the foot of the hill, about two miles
distant. These polishing works are said to be the most perfect of
their kind in the kingdom, and reveal to the visitor some of the
wonders which can be wrought by first-class machinery and skilled
labour. The power to turn waste substances to useful and profit-
able account has long been recognised as a means of advancing
national progress and personal fame. This power is most advan-
tageously exercised in these polishing works. All the waste chip-
pings at the quarry are crushed by powerful machinery, and these
are despatched to the works, where they are formed into granolithic
slabs, to any measurement and to any shape. In connection with
the outcrop of granite, I must not omit to mention the existence of
an immense number of granite boulders, not only in the river-bed,
but for miles across the moor. In one place, near the ridge of a
hill, five or six miles distant, there is a large circle of these boul-
ders, supposed to have been gathered and utilised by the Druids.
These boulders aU bear distinct marks of their origin, and undoubt-
edly once formed a part of the granitic mass called Wasdale Crag.
Professor Sedgwick states that boulders of the same material may

io6 Transactions of tJie [Sess.

be traced across the mainland eastward as far as Scarborough, and
in another direction as far as Morecambe Bay. We do not now
consider by what agency these boulders were torn off from the par-
ent mass, and removed to so great a distance ; but all will see how
much there is in these facts to awaken inquiry and provoke re-
flection.

The number of Ferns in the Shap-Spa district is sufficiently large
to make it attractive to any one whose pulse can be quickened by
the sight of a delicate or stately frond. Dxiring my stay there I
gathered seventeen different kinds : Pteris aquilina ; Polypodium
vulgare, P. Phegopteris, P. Dryopteris, and P. calcareum ; AUosorus
crispus ; Cystopteris fragilis ; Polystichum lobatum ; Lastrea filix-
mas, L. Oreopteris, L. dilatata ; Asplenium viride, A. Trichomanes,
and A. Euta-muraria ; Scolopendrium vulgare ; Blechnum boreale ;
and Athyrium filix-fcemina. Some of these were in great abund-
ance. This was specially true of Cystopteris fragilis, Asplenium
viride, A. Trichomanes, and Scolopendrium vulgare. These grow
in the water-worn recesses of the limestone rocks, either on the
underside of blocks lying on the surface or in the deep perpen-
dicular clefts which abound in the district. The appearance of
these Fern-clad clefts is singularly charming — all the more so, that
many of the plants were out of reach, and never likely to be extir-
pated. Orton Scar presents strong attractions for the botanist, and
affords a wide field for work. It is only about four miles from the
hotel, if the footpath across the moor be followed ; and this, under
the influence of the pure, bracing breezes of the fells, is an easy
morning or afternoon excursion.

Before closing this paper, there are two other subjects to which
reference must be made. On the right hand of the garden through
which you pass to the Spa, a large number of Swallows had gathered
in the trees, probably as a rendezvous before migrating to summer
skies. These, from early dawn to dusky eve, were an endless
source of amusement to the visitors. Their incessant and pleasant
chatter seems to tell us of conference, of courage, of hope, of cau-
tion, and of joy. As the season was advanced, and the cold was
increasing, we daily watcbed for their departure. One morning we
missed a large number : they had flown off, leaving about one-
fourth behind. Why was this ? Was it a part of a preconcerted
plan to gain some end which could not otherwise be gained? or
was it because those left were not strong enough to endure the
flight, and before doing so, needed to increase their energy ? What-
ever the reason, however, after three or four days had elapsed these
depaited too, giving us as visitors an impressive lesson as to the
near approach of wintry blasts and gloom.

During my visit there, Government tents were pitched under the
Wasdale Crag, to accommodate men who were engaged in taking

1882-83.] Edinbitrgh Naturalists Field Chib. 107

down telegraph wires, and carrying them along in cast-iron pipes
underground. The necessity for doing this arose from the great
destruction of game, caused by the birds flying against the wires.
It had been no uncommon thing for the keeper to find many of the
hill birds lying dead along the line of wire. To prevent this, by
removing the wire, was an act as merciful as it was wise. It is
sometimes said that the necessities of commerce have no law ; but
there is one law to which they ought to be subject — namely, the
law of working, if possible, by other means than those which en
danger or destroy life ; and it was the operation of bringing these
necessities into subjection to this law that we saw so successfully
carried out on Shap fells in the way we have described.

XV.— SPECIMENS OF LIZARDS FROM SOUTH AMERICA.

Exhibited, with Remarks, by Mb P. B. GIBB, M.A., Vice-President,

February 22, 1882.

The specimens exhibited were the Salimpinta, Iguana, Alligator,
Crocodile, and several smaller Lizards presented to Mr Gibb by a
gentleman lately returned from British Guiana.

At the same meeting there was exhibited a collection of Ferns
and Lycopods from New Zealand, by Miss M. Fraser.

XVI.— A DATS RAMBLE IN THE NORTHERN PART OF THE
ISLAND OF ARRAN, WITH NOTES ON THE GEOLOGY
AND BOTANY.

By Mb W. IVISON MACADAM, F.C.S., F.I.C.

[Read March 22, 1883.)

The Flora, Fauna, and Geology of Arran have received so much
attention at the hands of so many eminent men, that the subject
would appear completely worked up. The island, however, is so
very interesting to the student of Botany, Geology, or Entomology,
that I may be excused for laying before you one or two points that
may be seen by any one undertaking the walk I describe. That
the island should give, for its size, results greater than any other
ground in the country, is easily explained when one remembers
that there you have the sea with its salt marshes, lowland bog
and highland bog, and the hard igneous rocks with their Alpine

io8 Transactions of the [Sess.

flora, — from the cold northern portion round Corrie, with its some-
what bleak but bracing- winds, to the balmy recesses of the south,
with that gem of a hamlet, Lag, nestling amongst trees and
sheltered by rocks, and where you may pick flowers and gather
insects belonging to the south of Ireland and England.

The country over which I purpose to travel is in the northern
half of the island. Beginning at Corrie, we will proceed along the
sea-shore to Sannox burn ; then up North Glen Sannox, down Glen
Chalmadale to Loch Eanza, and after a brief stroll on the sea-shore
and amongst the equiseta and rushes in Loch a' Mhuilian, pro-
ceed up Gleann Easan Biorach to Loch na Davie, then up the
Castles and Chior Mhor, down the Saddle, and over the Creaggan
to Goat Fell, and after passing down the scarp, proceed by White
Water and the shore back to Corrie. The distance from Corrie at
any one point may not exceed twelve to fourteen miles, but the
long round we take opens out some of the very best of scenery,
portions of geology ' unrivalled in the kingdom, and a flora suffi-
cient to induce even an old botanist to return time after time.

Passing through Corrie, we notice at the harbour the cave-like
openings of the old limestone workings. These strata gave a first-
class limestone for both building and agricultural purposes, but
they have been stopped for several years, owing, it is said, to an
accident in which two men were killed. At present all the lime
required for agricultural purposes is obtained from Ireland, and
burned on the island by the consumer, who constructs for the pur-
pose a temporary kiln, exactly similar to those used some two or
three hundred years ago on the mainland. The Corrie limestone
abounds in fossils, more especially large product^ and it is deserv-
ing of note that the valves always rest on the convex side, showing
they must have been deposited in very tranquil water. Mixed with
the limestone are beds of shale somewhat ferruginous in character ;
and a higher stratum yields nodules of heematite iron-ore.

Proceeding along the shore northwards, we notice several trap
dykes, and the more curious hard ridges in the red sandstone, some
of which stand up a considerable height above the surrounding
rock, having defied the sea which denudes away the softer stone.
We pass some very large boulders of granite, whilst the sea-shore
is strewed with smaller rounded stones. The latter are at present
being broken up by dynamite, and shipped to Glasgow and other
places, to be ground down and used for compounding the " glaze "
for stoneware. Already large quantities have been exported, and
the shore has somewhat changed its general character. Of the
larger boialders, one on the left side of the road is a giant, and,
according to Bryce, weighs 200 tons, but from my own measure-
ments must exceed that by at least 50 tons. One other is a rock-
ing-stone, and can be easily moved from at least two points by a

1882-83.] Edinburgh Naturalists Field Club. 109

single man. The amount of displacement is, however, very small.
All along the left side of the road, and within 30 or 40 feet of it,
we see the old sea-cliff of red sandstone, with its caves and rocks,
covered with ferns and flowers. We now pass the small hamlet of
Sannox, then over the burn which comes down Glen Sannox, and
which has deposited at its mouth thousands of tons of granite sand.
This sand is also sent to Glasgow. The road then rises 200 feet,
giving us a glance up Glen Sannox, with its granite ridges sur-
mounted by Cioch nah Oighe (2168 feet) on the left, and the Siiidhe
Fhearghas (1500 to 1750 feet) and the three sharp points of
Caisteal Abhail (2735 feet) on the right, and closed by the grand
and precipitous height of the Chior Mhor (2618 feet). The road
then passes into North Glen Saimox, the burn of which it crosses
by a bridge, and then gradually rises once more. A short distance
farther on we look up North Glen Sannox, one of those favoured
spots which have not yet been " run on" by tourists. This glen has
scenery unlike any other part of the island, whilst its rocks and
cliffs are as good as the veritable Glen Sannox. The flora is un-
usually rich, especially in the Alpines and bog-loving plants, for
the spade of the ditcher has not yet reached it, and robbed it of its
treasures. Everywhere along the road one sees the ruined walls
of the old crofters' habitations, who, until the year 1832, inhabited
this glen. In that year the crofters, to the number of somewhere
between 500 and 600, were deprived of their homes and compelled
to leave the island. Near the bridge the conglomerate passes into
slates, which are at places striated. The conglomerate is extremely
coarse, containing pebbles sometimes as large as from 8 to 10 inches
in diameter. Further up Gleann Dubh, and near the 500 contour
line, there is a most interesting junction between the slates and
the granite. It is well exposed in the bed of the burn. The
granite is coarse, and abuts on the slate, which is changed into a
hard mass, and much laminated. One hundred feet higher (600
feet) and we reach the summit, from which we have one of the
finest views of the Caisteal Abhail and Suidhe Fhearghas : this
time, however, we see the north-west flank. We have now entered
Glen Chalmadale, and a rapid descent of between two and a half and
three miles brings us in sight of Loch Eanza. The road is cut out
of the side of the hill, and at some points is about 100 feet above the
burn. The flora is not unusual, all the ordinary flowers and ferns
being obtainable, but, so far as I have seen, nothing rare. The glen
is shut in by a sudden turn near the foot, so that we have descended
to the 300 contour line before we get even a glimpse of the sea.

At Loch Ranza there is a most comfortable cottage hotel, where

one can get refreshment if they so indulge ; but as we have still

the heavier part of our walk to do, we must be careful. Meantime,

a short stroll on the beach will repay the trouble in salt-marsh

voi,. I. u

iio Transactions of the [Sess.

plants — Spergularia marina (Sea Sandspurry), Arenaria peploides
(Sea Purslane), Aster Tripolium (Sea Aster), Triglochin maritimum
(Sea Arrow-grass), Gentiana campestris, &c. To the south of Loch
Eanza village, and hidden behind a knoll so completely that it is
rarely if ever seen by the passer-by, lies the little marshy Loch a'
Mhuilian, Here we get specimens of Potentilla Comarum (Marsh
Potentilla), Drosera rotundifolia and D. anglica, Menyanthes
trifoliata (Buckbean), Crepis paludosa, Sparganium simplex, Hy-
pericum Elodes, Equisetum hyemale, Potamogeton natans, Pedi-
cularis palustris, &c. ; whilst the Water Beetles, Butterflies, and
Dragon-flies would well repay a day's work.

A dozen yards or two leads us to the track by which we join the
path for Gleann Easan Biorach. The small river has cut a channel
through the slates to the depth of probably 30 or 40 feet, and as
this gorge is impassable, we must keep higher up on the hill flank.
On the right we have the Meall Mhor, or round-topped mountain
(1602 feet) ; on the left Torr Nead an Eoin, or the Hill of the Birds'
Nests (1057 fefet). How rapidly these mountains ascend can be
gathered from the fact that the top of the first is within three-
quarters of a mile and the second one quarter of a mile, on the
Ordnance map, from the actual burn. The gorge is narrow and
short, and you find yourself suddenly in a somewhat broad valley,
quite uncultivated, absolutely alone, shut out from the sea behind,
and with nothing but a wide expanse of moor and bog. But so
much have we to see, so careful must we be of our steps, so con-
tinuously are we engaged, that when we arrive at the end of our
four or five miles' walk, we regret the fact. We shall first descend
to the river and examine the junction of the slates and granite.
Note the many beautiful veins of granite, coarse and fine, that
intersect the broken slates, and trace these on various parts of the
hillside. From this point upwards we are on the granite ; but the
interest does not cease, for we find that it is far from constant in
grain ; and that the junctions in the granite itself will well repay
our labour. Whilst passing up the glen, we encounter plants of
Pinguicula lusitanica, Pedicularis sylvatica, Potentilla argentea,
and Hypericum pulchrum ; and whilst taking shelter from a pass-
ing shower, procure from the overhanging rocks Salix herbacea,
Loiseleuria procumbens, and, to our great delight, a shrub of Pyrus
pinnatifida, the deep-cut-leaved Beam-tree. Of course the Eowan
(Pyrus aucuparia) abounds. We afterwards pick up a specimen
of Carduus heterophyllus, or Melancholy Thistle. Loch na Davie lies
exactly on the highest part of this long valley, and sends its waters
both north down Gleann Easan Biorach and south to Gleann lorsa.
The only addition to our specimens obtained from this loch is
Lobelia Dortmanii, which occurs in great abundance. This plant
is said by the local guides to occur in Loch a' Mhuilian, but I could
not find it. In Loch na Davie, however, any amount can be had.

1882-83.] EdinbttrgJi Naturalists Field Club. 1 1 1

We are now 1182 feet above sea level, and can look clown Glen
lorsa, the longest of the Arran valleys. As, however, we are to
climb Caisteal Abliail, we do not wait longer than sufficient to
examine the view. A mile and a quarter good hill walking brings
us to the crest of the Castles (2735 feet) ; and now we have a noble
view of Glen lorsa, with its beautiful stream trickling over granite
gravel, passing into small lakes, and latterly into Loch lorsa. On
the hills to the south-west lie Loch Tanna and Loch Dubh, both of
which are 10G5 feet above sea level. The former loch affords good
sport, as it contains large quantities of mountain troiit. It is most
easily got at from Catacol. From the Castles we fall 700 feet, and
attack Chior Mhor (2618 feet). No one who has ever ascended this
mountain will compare any other Arran view to it. True, you cannot '
see the Largs shore on account of Goat Fell ; but otherwise the view
is grand, — Brodick, lorsa valley to Dougrie, Bute, Cumbrae, Cantyre,
the Paps of Jura, the Irish coast, are a few of the most promi-
nent ; whilst Sannox and Eosie Glens lie at your feet. The hill is
difficult of ascent, but the way we have come is comparatively easy.
Alchemilla alpina is added to our collection. With very great
care we pilot our way down to the scarp between the Chior and
Goat Fell, and lying at the top of Glen Eosie. We fall 1600 feet
in little more than a quarter of a mile, so you can readily under-
stand that heather or grass is a most welcome aid in lowering your-
self. All the guide-books I have seen declare this way impossible ;
and probably were I to suppose valuable lives accompanied by dizzy
heads were to follow me, I should do the same. No one not thoroughly
accustomed to hill walking, or not having a perfectly steady head,
should even attempt the inner igneous circle in Arran. A good
clear head, strong, well-trained body, and a good compass and
map, will carry one anywhere in the island. By a slight track
used by shepherds occasionally, we proceed to Goat Fell (2866
feet), and here we enjoy an August sunset. As it is somewhat
chilly, we get behind a rock, and after a slight refreshment start
down the east scarp. Already the stars are out ; and as the moon
is not yet up, it darkens very rapidly. By tlie time we are on the
moor it is quite dark, and we steer our way home to Corrie by
means of the lighthouse on the Little Cumbrae, arriving tired, not
exhausted ; and after a wash and tea, break out into that magnifi-
cent glow — a luxury only known to the healthy, and to them only
after severe exercise in the mountain air. A good sleep finds us
next morning desirous to be at it again, and only sorry that yester-
day's experiences do not come more often. If we are not in perma-
nent lodgings, we are safe with Mrs Morrison at the Corrie Hotel.

At this meeting Mr MacAdam also described certain diatomace-
ous deposits from the peat of Aberdeenshire, Sutherland, and
Lewis, and exhibited slides of the Diatoms under the microscope.

1 1 2 Transactions of the [Sess.

XVII.—ON THE GATHGART ETHER FREEZING MICROTOME.

By Mr ALEXANDER ERAZER, M.A.

{Exhibited in operation, with remarks, March 22, 1883.)

The increasing attention which in recent years has been given to
investigations in which the microscope is used has led to the
invention of many instruments by means of which thin sections of
animal and vegetable tissues may be prepared for examination.
The construction of an instrument by means of which sections of
comparatively hard substances may be cut does not present special
difficulty, and need not be further alluded to. But the cutting of
thin sections of soft substances is a difficult matter, and one upon
which much ingenuity has been expended. The method now
almost universally adopted is that of freezing the tissue to be cut,
so that for the time being it is not a soft substance, but a hard
one. Freezing is effected in two ways, — first, by using a freezing
mixture, such as ice and salt ; and second, by the rapid evapora-
tion of ether. For most purposes, microtomes which effect freezing
by means of a freezing mixture are to be preferred ; but many
circumstances render the use of these instruments inconvenient,
and in some cases they are quite inapplicable. When a freezing
mixture is employed, ice and salt are the usual elements of the
freezing compound. Now salt may be carried to any part of the
world, and is procurable in most places ; but ice cannot, and even
in cities time and trouble are required to procure it, after which
the laborious process of reducing it to a finely divided condition
must be undertaken. Further objections are to be found to ice-
and-salt microtomes, in the facts that they are slow in action and
rather uncleanly.

It is obvious that ether is not liable to the objections attending
the use of ice and salt. Ether may be carried anywhere, and can
be procured in most places, — while it is at once ready for use, and
is quite cleanly. The principal objection to the use of ether micro-
tomes has been, that they have hitherto been both expensive in first
cost and in after use. The cause of the expense of using ether
microtomes is due to the fact that ether is comparatively a costly
fluid. The instrument about to be described has been designed by
Dr Cathcart to overcome these objections. The first cost (15s.) is
inconsiderable, being less than half that of a well-made Ruther-
ford's instrument ; while the microtome has been so arranged as to
freeze with a very small quantity of ether. In most ether micro-
tomes hitherto devised, ether has been used not only to freeze the

1882-83.]

Edinb2trgh Naturalists Field Club.

113

tissue to be cut, but also to reduce the instrument itself to a cor-
responding temperature. In the Cathcart microtome only those
parts which it is essential should be cooled are reduced in tempera-
ture, the results of this being that a saving is effected in the
amount of ether used, and at the same time freezing is quickly
effected. The instrument consists essentially of two parts, which
are shown in figs. 1 and 2. Fig. 1 is a perspective view of the
microtome, with all the parts shown except the spray-bellows.
Fig. 2 is a sectional view of the ether points which are shown in
position at E in fig. 1. It will be seen that the upper tube of E is

Fig. 1.

connected with the bottle J, in which the ether is contained, while
the under tube of E communicates with the rubber-tube L, which
is led to the spray-bellows, not shown in the figure. When the

A

CI

B

<?

Fio. 2.

bellows are worked, a stream of air is driven through the tube B,
and allowed to escape by the orifice in the upper side ; in so doing
it passes the front of the small capillary-tube A, and first having
sucked out the air, afterwards divides the stream of ether, which
has been driven by atmospheric pressure from the bottle J, into

114 Transactiojis of the [Sess.

a finely divided state. In this finely divided state the cloud of
ether impinges npon the zinc plate H. From this plate it rapidly
evaporates, and in so doing causes the plate to become so cold
that it is capable of freezing any moderately sized tissue which is
placed upon its upper surface. It is found in practice that at an
ordinary temperature (about 50° Fahr.) a tissue about \ inch in
diameter and \ inch thick may be frozen in two minutes by the
expenditure of \ oz. of ether. The body of the instrument may be
briefly described. The framework is of J-inch oak, and consists of
a base, A, with two uprights, B B, screwed upon it. The base is
bored, to allow the tubes D — for raising the section — to pass
between the parallel uprights, and has a projecting part, so as to
permit the instrument to be clamped to the table M'. Upon the
top of the upright pieces, B B, are cemented two plates of glass,
C C. These plates allow the section-knife to move easily along
their upper surface, and are so arranged that the knife in its middle
part will not touch anything but the tissue. The method of rais-
ing the section-plate is as follows : Two accurately fitting brass
tubes are taken, and into the outer one, D, the nut, F, of a
fine screw is firmly soldered at its lower end. The inner tube has
the section-plate fixed to its upper end by two short brass pillars ;
between these, however, two small vulcanite washers are intro-
duced, so as to prevent the heat of the body of the instrument from
being communicated to the section-plate. The milled head, G,
pushes the inner tube and accompanying plate, H, gradually
upwards. The instrument is the invention of Mr Charles Cathcart,
M.B., Lecturer on Anatomy in Surgeon's Hall, Edinburgh ; while
my connection with the matter may be seen from the description
published by Mr Cathcart in the ' Journal of Anatomy and Physi-
ology' for April of this year (1883).

XVIII.— NOTES ON SPRING VEGETATION AS OBSERVED

AT MORNINGSIDE.

By Mr GEO. L. BROWN.

{Bead March 22, 1883.)

After returning home from our first excursion for the season, when
we visited the Snowdrops at Arniston, it was suggested to me by
our Secretary that I might offer a few remarks on Spring Vegeta-
tion for the current month at our next meeting, together with as
many specimens of different species as might be in flower in Mor-
ningside district, but more particularly those plants which, under
my own personal care and superintendence, I love to cultivate and
minister unto.

1882-83 ] Edinburgh Naturalists Field Club. 1 1 5

With February, along with the Snowdrops, the Crocus pokes up
his smiling face. The yellow Jessamine is also bursting into
beauty, sprays of which I cut freely, as I find they bloom perfectly
well in water, clean out to the tip, if the buds are anything like
matured. Garrya elliptica, now due, cannot fulfil its obligations in
whole, having been nearly burned out. Daphne Mezereon presents
itself beforehand, along with Ehododendron dahuricum ; while we
are further comforted by dozens of Violets putting in an appearance.
Leucojum vernum, being in sympathy with Galanthus plicatus,
hangs its graceful bells ; while the Scilla upheaves the soil and
bursts its little folds. Erica herbacea is well forward. Pips of
Polyanthus and Primroses are quite plentiful, as are also charm-
ing blooms of always welcome purple, red, and white Hepatica.
Altogether a more delightful February I never remember, and in
a fit of exuberance I roll and cut the grass ! (The lowest reading
for the month was on the 19th : 28°.)

Now that March has come, we think our different coloured
" regiments on the line " in fine form, and look grand as we march
past them, the sun beaming on their shining coats ! Further than
this foretaste we do not get, however, as from catching midges,
rolling on a sunny slope, we are engaged, a few days later on,
shovelling snow, more or less of which we have hardly been without
since. However, if there be any comfort in affliction, we have it in
the fact that a distinguished Edinburgh professor, writing from
Cannes to his family, states that, as regards weather, he might as
well be in Morningside ! On the rockery we notice Arabis lucida
looming forth, as if in mockery to the snow ; while red and white
Daisies are to be got flowering bravely, and whispering lovingly to
their companion, Aubrietia, to wake up, and with its purple rays
dissolve the snow. The Sedum, too, is putting on its spring coat ;
while the Sisyrinchium shakes out its purple bells. Primula den-
ticulata we behold tucked up in bed, and under the depressing cir-
cumstances we cannot expect him to rise just yet, but meantime
draw the curtain over him, and all our dear little ones, without a
doubting heart. May they smile upon us soon again 1

XIX.— GEOLOGICAL NOTES ON A FEW OF THE EXCURSIONS.

By Miss CRAIGIE.

ST DAVIDS— ifay 27, 1882.

On Saturday, May 27th, the Geological section of the Club examined
the rocks exposed on the shore between Inverkeithing and St
Davids. The crater-shaped cavity of Inverkeithing Bay is enclosed

1 16 Transactions of the [Sess.

by walls of basalt intrtided among the carboniferous strata of the
district. The soft sandstone and shales have been removed by the
denuding forces of rain, frost, &c. The hard basalt offers more
resistance, and forms the headlands and hills along the coast. Some
good sections of basalt were seen in the quarries, showing the char-
acteristic double system of jointing, each block weathering in con-
centric spheroidal coats, and changing in colour from black to yellow
as its iron oxide becomes transformed into the hydrous peroxide
limonite. Some of the newly exposed surfaces were slicken-sided.
The variety of basalt is a fine-grained greenstone, generally con-
taining grains of iron pyrites. A little west of St Davids the car-
boniferous strata appear — finely laminated black shale overlying
fine-grained sandstone; these dip about 20° N.W. under the
greenstone. The ballast heaps presented a wayside museum of
schists, sandstone, granites, and flints, which probably once formed
part of the shores of the Highlands or Scandinavia.

EAST LINTON AND PRESSMENNAN— J^iMie 3, 1882.

The high-road between East Linton and Pressmennan lies over the
carboniferous strata, which extend through the lowland valley from
the coast of Ayrshire to Dunbar. Fertile fields lie on either side,
and these owe their fertility not so much to the immediately under-
lying rocks as to glaciers of the Ice Age which ground down the
face of the country over which they passed, and carried with them
a happy mixture of sand, clay, and lime. The intrusive volcanic
rocks of the neighbourhood — e.^., Traprain and Berwick Law — give
diversity to the scenery because of their hardness. The sandstones
have been worn away, and the basalt, weathering equally all round,
has assumed a shape somewhat like a true volcanic cone.

Pressmennan Loch lies in a hollow, bounded by steep rocky
banks and closed in at each end by rocks. Its formation has not
yet been explained. The brooks in the neighbourhood are not large
enough to have hollowed out such a basin, and its form is not such
as would have resulted from glacial action.

CRAIGMILLAR— Jimc 7, 1882.

The high-road between Powbiirn and Craigmillar again lies over
carboniferous sandstone, red and white. At a small quarry an in-
teresting example of slicken-sides was seen. The sandstone had
been removed down a line of jointing for several yards. Between
the sides of the joint water containing a mineral had passed, enam-
elling the surface. The grinding together of the rock along the
line of jointing had produced the usual fine striations. The castle
is situated near the summit of a hill formed by an anticline. The
strata on which it rests are nearly horizontal, and dip away on
either side.

1882-83] Edinburgh Naturalists Field Club. 1 17

WEST LINTON TO DOLPHINTON— /«»c 10, 1882.

Our walk to-day lay over the old red sandstone, which in the
Pentland district is faulted down between the Silurian greywacke
on the S. and S.E. and the carboniferous on the W. Towards
the south stretched the Peeblesshire hills, rising peak over peak,
" with long smooth summits that join on to each other, and once
formed a wide tableland." About a mile west rises Mendick Hill
(1500 feet), formed of brownish conglomerate, and capped by
jjorphyry, which has protected it from denudation.

Above the bridge at Linton are a series of beds of sandstone,
which gradually pass into a calcareous claystone. They are almost
horizontal, but change suddenly about 200 yards above the bridge.
The beds vary much in colour and hardness — being harder in pro-
portion to the quantity of lime.

PEEBLES— JifHc 1, 1882.

Peebles is situated in one of the valleys of the great Lower
Silurian tableland of the south of Scotland. The rocks of the
neighbourhood, as seen in the quarries and along the basin of the
Tweed, consist of hard grey and blue grit, shale, and greywacke.
The last is exceedingly hard, locally termed whinstone, and much
used for road-mending. The surface-soil and underlying strata in
the valleys generally date from the Ice Age. At the railway
bridge above Neidpath Castle there is a fine section of boulder-clay
and its accompanying beds. The fertile meadow-lands on either
side of the Tweed are good examples of the flood-plains of alluvium
which our rivers form as a slight return for the tremendous waste
of their channels.

FALKLAND AND LOMOND HILL-/«7ic 24, 1882.

This district lies on the northern boundary of the carboniferous
sandstone series, where this passes into the old red sandstone of
the Ochils and Dura Den, The hills are of sandstone capped by
greenstone, which has protected them from denudation. West
Lomond is particularly interesting as an example of the power of
a river to cut its way downward through solid rock. The sand-
stones rise for 900 feet above the vale of Eden, the bare edges of
the strata sometimes jutting through the green hill slope. These
are capped by a thick bed of greenstone, which is in turn covered
with beds of sandstone and limestone, and finally the greenstone
of the summit. The truncated edges of the sandstone are faced by
similar strata on the other side of the valley. It is evident the
river has cut its way down through them at least 900 feet.

Ii8 Transactions of the Edin. Nat. Field Club. [Sess. 1882-83.

GULLANE— Jji^y 22, 1882.

From the coral limestone at Aberlady several specimens of Litho-
strotion irregulare and Lithostrotion junceum were obtained. This
limestone is the eastern representative of the carboniferous lime-
stone beds at Portobello. The Edinburgh carboniferous strata lie
in a basin-shaped cavity, the edges of which appear in the calcifer-
ous sandstones of Leith on the west and North Berwick on the
east. The limestone series overlies this, and is overlaid in the
centre of the basin by the millstone grit and coal-measures between
Musselburgh and Joppa. From a bed of fossiliferous shale between
Aberlady and Gullane our hostess-^ had obtained some good speci-
mens of Sigillaria.

©bituarg i^otfcc.

Mr John Sadler, Curator of the Eoyal Botanic Garden, and one of
the founders of the Club, died December 9, 1882.

At the meeting of 22d December 1882, before proceeding to the
business of the evening, the President said : " I must detain you
for a few moments in alluding to a sad event which has happened
since our last meeting. I am sure I express the unanimous feeling
of all presfent when I say how very deeply we regret the death of
our friend, and one of the founders of our Club — Mr John Sadler,
— and how sincerely we sympathise with his widow and children.
He was a man of a kindly and genial disposition, with a deep
scientific knowledge of the subject which had been the study of
his life ; and he had a very happy manner of imparting information.
Many of us remember the very interesting addresses he delivered to
ourselves and others ; and very fresh in our recollection is the kind
and hospitable manner in which Mr and Mrs Sadler have on several
occasions entertained the Club at the Royal Botanic Garden. I
am sure you all coincide with me in expressing our deep regret at
this sad event."

The Secretary was instructed to engross these remarks in the
minute of the meeting, and send a copy of the same to Mrs Sadler.

^ Our member, Mrs Bryden, who was residing at Aberlady, kindly enter-
tained the Club to tea on the occasion of its visit.

I.— THE HIRVNDINES.

By Mr A. B. HERBERT, President.

{Read Oct. 26, 1883.)

I PROPOSE, at this our first indoor meeting for the season, to submit
to you a few remarks on our Hirundines ; but before doing so, I
should like to say a little on the position and prospects of the Clubj
— and in these there is indeed much cause for congratulation. You
will learn from the Secretary that, as regards the number of our
members, the net gain is an accession of thirty-six in the past year;
and I hope and believe this is not our only gain, but that our intel-
lectual is commensurate with our numerical acquisition, and that
among our new members will be found many from whom we may
derive valuable information, and to whom we may also look for
instructive and interesting papers. The field of Natural History is,
we all know, most extensive — indeed we might say almost unlimited ;
and there are many branches we should be glad to see more fully
investigated. We need not confine ourselves to Eotany, Geology, and
Ornithology. We have made a commencement in Entomology, and
there we have a grand field for observation ; and I see no reason why
we should not have papers on the mammalia of the country, and also
on the fishes, molluscs, and reptiles. Again, in microscopical research
where shall we find a limit 1 Let us indeed consider nothing in
nature unworthy of our investigation; for what it pleased an all-wise
and benevolent Creator to form, cannot be beneath His intelligent
creatures to inspect and elucidate. Perhaps I cannot give a more apt
illustration of what I mean than by mentioning a most despised
insect, the common Wasp. Our first and only thought, when we see
one in our rooms, is to destroy it — and perhaps we are right ; but we
may learn something even from a Wasp. Who can tell for how many
centuries these insects were paper-makers, and, moreover, from wood
pulp, before the Scandinavians started their pulp-factories ? And I am
disposed to think that if the latter had paid more close attention to
the operations of the insects, they would have avoided some early
errors in their manufacture, and have had less sawdust and more
fibre; for just listen for a few moments to what a writer 130 3' ears
ago says of the modus operandi of these insects : —

" Big and short pieces of wood like sawdiist would not suit ; it is necessary
to have a sort of thread, and in getting such we miist notice the sagacity of
the Wasp. She doth not merely hash the wood, which woidd give her saw-
dust ; but before she cuts it she makes a sort of scraped lint ; she presses the
VOL. I. I

1 20 Transactions of the [Sess.

fibres between her talons, raises them np, and by that means separates them ;

having clone this, she afterwards cuts them." ^

On a recent visit to Kenihvortli, I found a young relative very
busy in the observation of the habits and instincts of Wasps. He took
me into his study, consisting of a disused loft, telling me at the same
time to be rather careful what I touched. There I saw many nests
in full work, the insects passing to and fro through an open window;
and three different species of British Wasps were fully explained and
exhibited. One large and beautifully constructed nest was suspended
from a beam ; another was in a basket ; a third was in its casing of
clay ; and a fourth, which had been accidentally broken, was in process
of being restored by the joint efforts of the student and the insects.
He took from a nest and placed in my hand a male Wasp, which, like
the male Bee, has no sting, and explained to me how it was distin-
guished from the females and workers by its peculiar and beautiful
antenucB. He was about to remove to his loft the same evening a
populous nest from the thatch of a cottage, the old woman who
inhabited it being desirous of parting with her too numerous yellow
neighbours. I merely mention this as an instance that in the habits
of the most insignificant or most despised creatures we may find
something of interest.

We have, during the past summer, had many enjoyable trips,
which I venture to assert were f idly appreciated ; and few of us who
were there will forget the Snowdrop-day at Arniston, the Primrose-
days at JSTorth Berwick and West Linton, and the Cowslips at Long-
ISTiddry. I am sure I am ordy expressing the general feelings of our
Club, when I mention our obligation to the noblemen and other
proprietors who kindly allow us to perambulate their domains ; and
foremost among these I would name a very kind friend to our Club,
Robert Dundas, Esq. of Arniston. It is our earnest desire, as I trust
it ever will be, to do no harm to any one, and not to exterminate
rare plants, but merely to take a few specimens. Indeed there is
one somewhat rare plant which we hope next summer to translate
to other localities. With these preliminary remarks I will now
proceed with my paper.

The Hirundines, or Swallows, in which term I include also our
Martins and Swifts, though the latter are now generally known
under the designation Cij2)seKnce, form a very interesting tribe of the
birds of these islands, and their habits and migrations have always
attracted much attention. We have four species, all common as
summer migrants — viz., the Swallow {Hirundo rusticd) ; the House-
martin {llirundo urhica) ; the Sand-martin {Hirundo rijparia) ; and
the Swift (Cyj)selus ccpus); and besides these, there is that very rare

^ Wildman on Bees and Wasps.

1883-84] Edinburgh Naturalists' Field Club. 121

occasional visitant, the large Alpine Swift (Cijpselus alpimis), only
one specimen of which I have ever seen in the flesh, and that was
about thirty years ago, in the hands of a taxidermist in London. We
always welcome with pleasure the arrival of Swallows in the spring
as the harbingers of mild genial weather. The small Sand or Bank
Martin is usually the first to appear. There is a peculiarity about
the breeding habits of this species which, I believe, is not generally
known ; but as we have the statement on the authority of those
who have, in studying ornithology, paid close attention to these birds
in their African winter quarters, we can scarcely dispute the fact that,
unlike their congeners, they breed both here and also during our
winter in Africa, and to this is probably to be attributed their greater
numbers as compared with all others of the Swallow kind. Their
mode of nidification, too, is quite sui generis; for, unlike the other
Swallows and Martins, which construct their nests of clay or mud,
the Sand-martin, with indomitable perseverance, perforates a hole,
about two feet in length, usually in a sandbank, and in a small
hollow at the end deposits its eggs. It is extraordinary that a bird
with so small a bill and such short legs should be able to accomplish
this excavation ; but this is one of those instances of what can be
done with small powers by perseverance and industry. A colony
of these birds build in a sandbank to the east of Inverleith Eow,
and until recently there were always a few in the bank at Powder-
hall ; but where I have seen them in the greatest numbers was in a
railway- cutting at St Marys Cray, in Kent. There they form quite
a remarkable sight, the whole face of the cutting being perforated by
them, and you see many hundreds, perhaps thousands, of them to-
gether on the wing. Another place where I have seen them in vast
numbers is in a sandstone quarry at Bebbington, near Liverpool.
The Sand-martin is readily distinguished from the House-martin by
its brown back, which in the latter species is bluish black.

The House-martin is the species with which we are most familiar,
from its habit of fixing its nest under the eaves of our houses or in
the corners of our windows ; and it is not easily driven away from
the spot it has selected, for I have known the nest destroyed four or
five times, and still the birds persevered, as Thomson describes it —

" To build theii- hanging house intent."

Often, when the nest is nearly completed, a pert Sparrow will
drive the builders away and take possession ; and there is an
anecdote related that on one occasion the pair of Martins, not being
able to dislodge the intruder, were joined by many others of their
kind, and with their united efforts succeeded in plastering the
Sparrow up by filling the entrance ^\'ith mud. A short time ago a
number of House-martins were disporting themselves over the classic
Avon, when a Swan underneath them began to preen his plumage,

122 Transactions of tJie [Sess.

and many wMte downy feathers floated down the river. These the
birds caught in their flight and carried up into the air, evidently for
mere amusement, as one would repeatedly release a feather and
another catch it before it touched the water. This pleasing game
continued for some time, and was observed with much interest by
many spectators on the bridge. It was very interesting to notice
with what unerring activity and adroitness the birds caught the
feathers in their flight, and seemed thoroughly to enjoy their amus-
ing and sprightly game.

The true Swallow, or Chimney Swallow, as it is called, is readUy
distinguished from every other species by its long forked tail ; and it
has, moreover, a very pleasing warble, ending with a long-drawn-out
note, and in the early summer it often sings on the wing. The.
earliest date at which I have ever seen it in Scotland was on the 16th
of April in the present year, when one flew over my head as 1 was
returning from church ; and the latest date I ever saw a Swallow in
England was on the 5th jSTovember. There are, however, instances
recorded of their having been seen as late as December, but never in
any numbers. I once witnessed a very sad sight as regards this
species, — I forget the exact year, but I think it was about 1860, — after
genial weather in April it became at the end of the month excessively
cold and stormy, and one day, when fishing at Combe Abbey in
Warwickshu-e, I noticed many dozens of poor Swallows lying dead in
the boat-house. The keeper informed me that they had perished
there from cold and hunger. It was, I assure you, to a lover of
birds, a melancholy sight, and, we will hope, one of very rare occur-
rence. The Swallow usually fixes its mud nest on a beam in an out-
house, and returns regularly to the same spot for years. There is
every year a nest under the portico of a large house at Blackford, the
proprietor of which is most careful in protecting them from interfer-
ence. The strangest place I have ever heard for a Swallow to build
her nest, was on a beam fifteen fathoms down the shaft of a coal-mine.
The Swift is the largest of our four common species, with great
length of wing and power of flight, and readily known by its
uniform dark-brown colour. It does not make its nest of mud,
but buUds in holes in walls, and often under a thatched cottage
roof. It is the latest to arrive and the earliest to depart, coming
in May and leaving in August or at the beginning of September.
I once caught one of these birds while fishing with the natural
May-fly. It drew out in its flight a considerable length of line, but
I soon brought it to the ground, and found the small hook had pene-
trated through only a minute piortion of skin inside the beak : this
I severed carefully with a penknife, and gave the bird its liberty,
happily very little injured. Swifts seldom or never settle on the
ground, but perform all their functions on the wing, even to
the propagation of the species, and collecting materials for their

1883-84-] Edinburgh Naturalists Field Cinb. i''^

J

nests. Noticing this latter habit, idle boys at Eome manage to
capture these useful birds by a process at once surprisingly simple
and efficacious. They procure a silken line of sufficient length to
reach above the eaves of the houses. To one end of this they
attach a small curled feather or two, and behind these is formed
a running noose. This apparatus is taken up into the air by the
current of wind blowing along the street, and as the poor birds are
on the look-out for materials wherewith to line their nests, they
strike at the floating feathers and get their necks into the fatal snare,
when they are taken to the bird-market in the Eotunda for sale.
This ornithological amusement is often carried on in the street of the
Propaganda during the months of May and June, It seems to be
a great delight to Swifts on a summer's evening to collect together
and fly, with peculiarly harsh screams, round our churches, ruins,
and rocks.

The Alpine Swift is, as I have before remarked, a very rare occa-
sional visitant to these islands. It is white underneath and brown
on the back. The figure which I exhibit (painted by my daughter)
gives a very good idea of this biixl, and you will observe from it that
the flight feathers of the wings, when closed, extend considerably
beyond the end of the tail ; and while in the common species the
expanse from point to point of the wings is seventeen inches, in the
Alpine S^vift it is fully twenty-six, giving the bird extraordinary
powers of flight.

In former times it was a subject of much Avonder and conjecture
where our Swallows went in the winter ; and the fact of their con-
gregating in the autumn in the wiUow-beds on our rivers in such vast
numbers just previously to their disappearance altogether, probably
led to the idea that they retired under water, and there lay dormant
till the return of spring — a very strange notion certainly, and long
since exploded. "VVe now know as a certainty that vast numbers
winter in North Africa. They do not, however, reach the southern
part of that continent ; for my son, who was for some time in Natal
and the Transvaal, informs me that though he saw many species of
Hirundines there, not one was identical with those indigenous here.
It is strange and interesting to note, that whatever new country Ave
may visit, we find in its bird-life species very analogous to our own,
and yet entirely distinct.

I met with rather a curious anecdote in an old book on animal
biography respecting migration, wdiich may not be uninteresting,
though for its truth I cannot vouch. It is said that a shoemaker in
Brazil tied a label to a Swallow with this inscription, " Pretty Swallow,
teU me whither goest thou in winter 1 " and that it or another
Swallow returned the next spring Avith a label on AAdiich was AATitten
in Greek characters, " To Antonio in Athens : why dost thou
inquire 1 "

1 24 Transactions of the [Sess.

The subject of migratioB, we are glad to know, has been for several
years, and still is, engaging the attention and research of the British
Association, and a committee has been formed for elucidating the
matter, of which a gentleman well known to many of us, Mr Harvie
BroAvn, is a most active aaid efficient member. This committee is in
communication with the coastguard service and the keepers of light-
houses on our coasts, and is bringing to light many curious and pre-
viously unknown facts, especially that some of our birds, which are
residents with us throughout the year, in certain places and under
certain circumstances migrate in enormous numbers. Two of these
are the Jay, and the smallest of British birds, the Gold-crested
Regulus. At the recent meeting of the Association, it was stated
that migrations of the latter species had been observed last autumn
in twenty-one stations, comprising, amongst others, the Faroe Islands,
the Isle of May, and Guernsey. Mr Garrioeh stated that on the
9 th October very large flocks of these diminutive birds, with a few
Fire-crests, were seen crossing the island of Bressay ; and Mr Gatke
remarks that at Heligoland, on the 28th October, to use his own
words, " we had a perfect storm of Gold-crests perching on the
ledges of the window-panes of the lighthouse, and preening their
feathers in the glare of the lamps. On the nights of the 28th and
29th the Avhole island swarmed with them, filling the gardens and
over all the cliff, hundreds of thousands of them. By 9 a.m. on the
30th, most of them had passed on again." It is gratifying to hear
that these pretty little bu^ds, generally seen here only in twos and
threes, exist elsewhere in such vast numbers.

But to return to the Swallows — that pleasing writer, Edward
Jesse, in his ' Country Life,' gives a very graphic account of some
Swallows reared by hand, which I think may be interesting. He
says : —

" Some years ago three Swallows fell down one of my chimneys. Their
naked and helpless condition liaving excited the pity of my family, it was
determined to endeavoiir to rear tliem : I therefore became their foster-
parent. On rainy days they were fed witli egg, and in sunny weather with
various species of flies. I found it, however, a very difficult task to supply
them with a sufficient number. I could only do so by sweeping the heads of
umbelliferous plants with my fly-net. All the Swallow tribe continue in
their nests a long time before they take their fii-st fliglit, but I was anxious
that my proteges should exercise their wings as soon as possible, and thus
prepare themselves for emigration. I therefore threw them into the air as
soon as I could do so prudently. At first they appeared much alarmed, and
clung to the nearest object they could fasten upon, but in a few days they
not only flew about but caught their food- expertly. Some time, however,
elapsed before they could satisfy the cravings of appetite through their own
exertions. This occasioned them frequently to appeal to me for assistance in
a manner too intelligible to be mistaken. They would utter a plaintive cry
in flying around me, and sometimes settle on me. On these occasions I
usually led to those places where the Asters abounded, from the flowers of
whicli I easily captured various species of Syrphi in the hollow of my hand.

1883-84.] Edinburgh Nahiralists Field Club. 125

It was tnily amusing to observe the eagerness with which the movement of
my hand was watched, and with what voracity the produce of my eiJbrts was
devoured. As soon as my birds could fly, an open basket liaviug a perch
across it was set apart for their use. Here they rested by day and roosted
at night. It was placed in the open air in the morning, and removed at
night into the house. It often happened that my little charges had enjoyed
two or three hours' disporting before I was prepared to walk. I was, however,
recognised and greeted as soon as I appeared ; and whether I pursued the
course of the roads or rambled into the fields, they generally encircled me in
their flight, sometimes resting upon me and accepting a fly from my fingers.
These amusing proceedings continued four or five weeks, but after that
period, according to my wish, om* intercourse diminished daily. They asso-
ciated more and more with their congeners, who were collecting together as
is usual at this period of the year, and were absent more frequently and for
longer intervals ; but whenever aud wherever I again appeared, they seldoni
failed to come to me when I summoned them with my call. Having dis-
appeared for two or three days, I considered that our connection was alto-
gether dissolved ; but as I was walking to an adjoining village, one of the
birds gave me his wonted salutation in passing, and on my invitation perched
on one of my fingers. In this position I conveyed it to the village green,
and there in the presence of several persons cast it into the air, with some
exclamation expressive of my wish for its welfai'e. I was often solicited to
continue my interesting charge throughout the winter, but I had accom-
plished my object. I had promoted the enjoyment of existence ; that was
sufficient. By attempting more, and thwarting the demands of instinct, I
should probably have terminated that happiness which had been the object
of my care and interest."

There is a very similar instance to the above of rearing a SwalloAv by-
hand given in Bewick's work, in a letter written in the year 1800
by the Eev. Walker Trevelyan of Long Witton, J^orthumberland.
It is wonderfnl how utterly devoid of fear birds are when reared in
this manner from the nest aud allowed their liberty ; and to my mind
they are infinitely more engaging and interesting than any caged bird
can be, which, to borrow from the nursery rhyme, —

" Hops all day long on a straight bit of stick."

Two instances have come to my knowledge of young Sparrows
reared in a similar manner to these Swallows, and in both instances
they seemed to have lost, or perhaps, more properly speaking, never
to have acquired, a fear of mankind. One of these cases I should
like to give a little in detail. A worthy doctor near Edmburgh found
in his garden a young Sj^arrow blown out of its nest. It was reared
by his family, and kept in a cage in the dining-room, but allowed to
come out at its pleasure, and, when old enough, to fly out through the
window, but it always returned to its kind protectors. Dining there
one day, I asked one of the ladies, as we walked from the drawing-
room, whether I should see her friend the Sparrow. She said,
"Certainly, for he always comes to dinner;" and during our repast,
when I was not thinking of him, he flew in by the window and settled
on my shoulder, then hopped on to the table and took some crumbs
from my fingers. Then he settled on my host, went the round of the

126 Transactions of the [Sess.

table, afterwards flew to his cage for some seed and water, and
departed through, the open wmdow, paying us another visit during
dessert. I never saw any bird so utterly free from fear. He used to
make a pretence of building by collecting in his beak small bits of
worsted spread about for him on the floor, but it was not known
whether he ever entered on the matrimonial state. At any rate, if he
did, he never had the courtesy to introduce his spouse to his friends.
He slept out of doors in the summer, and in a corner of the dining-
room m the winter. He seemed not afraid, but angry, when caught
in the hand, and screamed and pecked till released. He continued
an inmate of the house for more than two years, when he disappeared.
Whether he had lived the span of Sparrow life, or become a victim to
some prowling cat or sharp-eyed hawk, we can never know.

That Swallows are great benefactors to man there can be no doubt,
as their food is exclusively winged insects, and some of these, in their
larval state, most destructive to vegetation. I will content myself
with mentioning only one species of insects to which they are most
partial, namely, the large Tipula oleracea, commonly known as
"Daddy Long-legs." This large gnat, in its larval state, is well
known to be very destructive to farmers' root-crops, especially to
turnips. Walking one day with Mr Scot Skirving, he pointed out
a turnip-plant withering away, and told me we should find one of
these larvse devoimng the tap-root. We forked it up, and found the
grub, just as we anticipated. I once saw four young Swallows, having
just left the nest, sitting together on the top of a door and being fed
by their parents with these insects, and in such numbers that the
young birds could not swallow them fast enough, and the legs of
" Daddies " stuck out on both sides of their beaks, giving the birds a
most grotesque appearance.

I have never known any year when the " Daddy Long-legs "
abounded in such myriads in England as in the late summer. They
flew into the lamps, on to our plates, left their legs in the butter, and
were indeed a perfect pest. One day, in Worcestershire, while a stiff
breeze was blowing, I noticed several hundred Swallows beating up
slowly against a strong wind over a turnip-field, and devouring
the " Daddies " by thousands as they rose from the plants. You
might see them almost settle on the plants in snapping up the
insects ; and when I returned from my walk, the Swallows were still
there, hunting over the field in increased numbers, and the quantity
of insects destroyed by, them is quite beyond calculation. After
speaking thus of the great utility of these birds, it is sad to read the
following statement of cruelty on the part of an Italian. The account,
which I fear is only too true, is as follows, and is very properly
headed " Disgraceful Butchery " : —

" An Italian sporting paper is responsible for the following account of a
wicked butchery of Swallows perpetrated by an Italian, Siguor Paglia, who

1883-84.] Edinbiu'gh Naturalists Field Club. 127

evidently is considered by the Italian sporting world as a hero of great skill
and eiului^ance. We give the facts as recorded by an eyewitness : ' I send
you intelligence of a most important Swallow-shooting accomplished by Signor
Paglia, and which, as a feat of endurance and skill, will make the round of
the sporting papers. On Sept. 2, Signor Paglia, with a retinue of seventeen
persons, men and boys, went to a place called Eattiferro, some two kilometres
distant fx'om Bologna, about 6.30 a.m., with six central-fire breech-loaders.
The day was very favourable for the match, being rainy. The Swallows
passed in large numbers during the whole day, and the shooting lasted till
6.15 P.M., with the interval of an hour for refreshment. The insuperable (!)
Paglia closed this splendid day, killing 2186 Swallows (I repeat, two thousand
one hundred and eighty-six), bringing them down one by one on the wing.
They were picked up before a jury composed of Signoi'i Cavaliere, Neri
Baraldi (president of the Bologna Shooting-Club), Count Massai, Grazioli,
Caprini, Giorgi, Bragaglia, and Giudicini.' The shooting, no doubt, is mar-
vellous, but when we consider the untold good these little insect-feeders do,
how they seek for the companionship of man, and, as it were, for his protec-
tion during nesting-time, and fearlessly pursue their daily work almost within
his reach, it seems the more cruel that this little hai-mless innocent should
have been selected for this disgraceful exhibition. . . . To find such a deed
as this actually attested by respectable burghers of the country, shows the
degraded state of humanity amonst the Italians."

It is an amusing sight to watch Swallows feeding their young on the
wing. If you notice them carefully, soon after the young have flown —
and you can easily distinguish the old birds hy their fully developed
long forked tails — you will hear a gentle twittering call, and then see
the parent and young rise up with their breasts together in their
flight, and the food transferred from one l^eak to the other. I will
conclude these remarks with a short extract from White's ' Selborne,'
The author says : —

" The Swallow tribe is of all others the most inoffensive, harmless, enter-
taining, and social. All, except one species, attach themselves to our houses,
amuse us with their migrations, songs, and marvellous agility, and clear the
air of gnats and other troublesome insects, which would otherwise much
annoy and incommode us. Whoever contemplates the myriads of insects
that sport in the sunbeams of a summer evening in this country, will soon be
convinced to what degree our atmosphere would be choked with them were
it not for the friendly interference of the Swallow tribe."

II.—NOTE ON A BABBIT KILLED BY A WEASEL.

By Mr ROBERT STEWART, S.S.C.

{Read Oct. 26, 1883.)

We have on several occasions come across a Eabbit Avhile in the
clutch of the Weasel, and were curious to know how it had been
caught ; but it was only this summer that we were fortunate enough

128 Transactions of tJie [Sess.

to witness the capture of a Eabbit by this, the most dreaded of all
its many enemies. JN^o doubt the Weasel kills many Eabbits by
coming upon them unexpectedly while they are lying out in the
bushes, or hunts them to death in their burrows, but what we saw
proves that the Weasel is more than a match for a full-grown Eabbit,
notwithstanding the disparity in speed, even in that longest of all
chases, a stern one.

The river Findhorn, which is hemmed in by immense rocks in
its higher reaches, makes up for its temporary confinement as it
approaches the mouth. Here it laughs to scorn all attempts to keep
it within proper bounds. It makes many beds, but refuses to lie in
any of them. The consequence of this is, that the river hardly ever
occupies the whole of the channel between the two banks, so that if
the stream runs close to the bank on one side, there is usually a
tract of shingle intervening between the river and the bank on the
opposite side. It was such a place where we witnessed the following.

One forenoon, during the last week of August, we happened to be
fishing near the mouth of the river, when we heard from the opposite
side the cry of what seemed to be a Eabbit in distress. On looking in
the direction from which the cry proceeded, we observed a Eabbit
coming out from the bushes on the opposite bank and running in a
zigzag fashion among the stones on the beach, crying piteously all the
while. We at first thought that a Weasel had hold of it, but this was
not the case, for, as it turned out, what we saw was only the first act of
the tragedy. The Eabbit had run a short distance only, when there
issued from the bushes in full pursuit a Weasel, which, so to speak,
flitted in and out among the stones so quickly that it was difiicult to
keep it in view. As the Eabbit was almost jDowerless through ex-
treme terror, and as the Weasel kept a straight line while the Eabbit
ran from side to side, it was not long ere the pair came to close
quarters, at the very edge of the river, and where the bank sloped
gradually towards the stream. As is usually the case, the Weasel
took hold of the Eabbit behind the ears, and proceeded to viciously
bite its victim, until such time as a wound large enough to enable it
to suck the blood was made. For a few minutes there was a struggle
at the water's edge, the Eabbit still crying in a very piteous manner,
and making frantic efi'orts to break loose from its fierce little foe, but
to no purpose. When, however, we thought all was over, the Eabbit,
in making a last effort to escape, rolled down the bank into the river,
carrying the Weasel with it. The Eabbit then struck out boldly into
the stream, and swam up the river in a slanting direction. The
Weasel, on finding itself in the water, at once let go its hold, and
having reached the shore did not attempt to follow the Eabbit, but
got to the top of the bank and ran quickly backwards and forwards
opposite the place where the Eabbit had entered the river. This
appeared to be done for the purpose of keeping itself in the Eabbit's

1883-84-] Edi)ibiirgJi NaULralists Field Club. 129

view, and a horrible fascination it must have had, for the llabbit,
which seemed to have fairly escaped, turned itself in the stream and
swam straight back for the sj)ot wliere the Weasel was. Eefore, how-
ever, it reached the side, the Weasel took to the water and had a firm
hold of its victim ere it landed, and for fully five minutes thereafter
we had to look helplessly on, while the poor Rabbit, who struggled
liard, was " done to death " by an animal not a tithe of its size.
During all the time this was going on, we noticed another llabbit
among the bushes at the edge of the bank, watching the whole pro-
ceedings in a dazed state. One could not help admiring the courage-
ous, though perhaps relentless, way in which the Weasel hunted and
killed the Eabbit ; and neither our shouts, the Rabbit's cries, nor the
exposed place where the deed was done — not a bush or tuft of grass
to conceal the pair — could make the Weasel stay for a moment its
cruel Avork, much less frighten it into giving up altogether its con-
templated meal.

At this meeting Mr A. D. Richardson exhibited under the micro-
scope a most interesting collection of plant stems, exogenous,
endogenous, and acrogenous, — drawing attention, in a few descriptive
remarks, to the characteristic features in the structure of each.

UI.—A NEJF METHOD OF TAKING IMPRESSIONS OF LEAVES.

By Mr JOHN TURNBULL, Galashiels.

(Communicated by Mr A. Frazer, Dec. 27, 1883.)

The process of taking leaf-impressions by means of carbonised paper
is exceedingly simjole and inexpensive. The materials required con-
sist of a sheet of fresh carbonised paper, such as is used for taking
duplicates of letters, &c. ; two sheets of thin, tough paper ; and the
paper upon which the leaves are to be copied. The latter ought to
have a very smooth surface, otherwise the finer lines or veiirs will
not be distinctly shown. Place the leaf to be copied upon the car-
bonised paper, and over it lay one of the sheets of thin paper.
With the soft fleshy extremities of the fingers and thumb press the
leaf into close contact with the carbonised paper. Continue this
until the entire surface of the leaf is covered with carbon. Although
not often necessary, this can be ascertained by lifting and examining
it from time to time. The leaf thus carhonised is now transferred
to the paper on Avhich it is desired to take the impression. Carefully
spreading it out, cover it with the second or clean sheet of thin paper.

130 Transactions of the [Sess.

Press, or rub, as before, so as to ensure complete contact between
the leaf and the sheet beneath. During this, the second and final,
operation, it is of the utmost importance that the leaf be kept in its
place, because, if allowed to shift at this stage in the slightest degree,
a bl;irred and unsatisfactory copy will be the result. If done with
care, on lifting it a beautiful impression of the leaf will be found on
the paper beneath — every vein, even the most delicate, being faith-
fully and accurately copied. Unlike drawings, these impressions
bear close examination, even with a lens ; and in this consists their
scientific value, as every line shown may be relied upon as having
been actually in. the original.

With regard to the permanency of the impressions, it may be
mentioned that my specimens have been used with almost as much
freedom as engnravings, without shoAving any traces of deterioration.

[A specimen of leaf-impression by Mr Turnbull's method will be
found opposite.]

At this meeting Mr Banks read a short note on the occurrence of
Stellaria aquatica. Scop., in the immediate neighbourhood of Edinburgh,
but for obvious reasons the precise locality was not given. Mr Mark
King also exhibited a collection of " interesting British plants," and
made short descriptive remarks on each. Among the plants thus
exhibited and described were the following : Brassica monensis,
Dentaria bulbifera, Iberis amara, Orobanche minor, "Woolfia arrhiza,
Lemna polyrhiza, and Hierochloa borealis, the last gathered by the
late Eobert Dick in Caithness.

IV.— THE STOAT OR ERMINE WEASEL {MUSTELA

ERMINEA).

By Mr R. SCOT SKIRVING.

(Read Jan. 24, 1883.)

This subject was suggested to me by a paper read at a former
meeting entitled " Note on a Babbit killed by a Weasel." The chief
interest of that paper lay in the fact that, on the occasion described,
the Weasel followed its prey into the water, swam after it, and kiUed
it there. This incident was Avorthy of notice as being rare, though I
am aware Weasels hunt Water-rats frora their holes, and follow them
in the water. By people who are not naturalists, the Weasel
{Mustela vulgaris) and the Stoat {Mustela erminea) are constantly
confounded together. They are both members of the same family

--1

■ I

"..<■:■: I

'^^

;

1883-84-] Edinbjirgh Naturalists' Field Club. 131

group — and a most bold, cruel, bloodthirsty, ill-conditioned, and
withal inquisitive family they are. They do not live in the odour
of sanctity at all, but they do possess an odour of a very different
nature, and that in a considerable degree. The members of the
Weasel family in this country consist of the Weasel, the Stoat, the
Polecat, the Marten, and the Pine Marten. There is also the
Ferret, but that species of AVeasel can be looked on in this country
as a domestic animal only. The Pine Marten is now exceedingly
rare, though one may still occasionally be met with in the larger Pine
woods of the north of Scotland. The common Marten, as it was
formerly called, is not quite so rare, and I read recently of two
specimens being shot ; and I saw a large one in the flesh very lately
in the shop of Mr Small, bird-stuifer, George Street. The Polecat,
an animal very like a large-sized, dark-coloured Ferret, is still far
from extinct ; but as it inhabits wild rocky woods, it is not often
seen, and I have only met with it twice in my life. When abundant,
in the earlier portion of this century, it was the terror and abhorrence
of henwives, and of all persons who kept poultry. By far the most
common of the Weasel tribe is the common Weasel. This active
little creature is much persecuted by gamekeepers, but it may well be
called the friend of the farmer, as, when it takes up its abode in a
barnyard, it very soon clears the stacks of rats and mice. I confess
to have been very inconsistent in my treatment of the Weasel, as I
invariably preserved it about the farm-offices, and as invariably shot
it when, gun in hand, I met with it in the fields. The Weasel, like
all its congeners, is so active and vigilant, that its name has given
rise to the proverb, " Catch a Weasel asleep ! " I had once, however,
an opportunity of making a poor pun very much at the expense of
an individual Weasel. I was wallving on the public road, whilst
a friend who bore the not altogether uncommon name of Brown
happened to be some fifty yards in advance of me. A Weasel
chanced to run across the road between us, but, catching sight of
Brown, it suddenly stopped and gazed upon him so intently, that it
allowed me to slip up and stamp my foot upon it. " If I have not
caught you asleep," I said, " I have at least surprised you in a brown
study ! "

But it is the Stoat, and not the Weasel, that is the subject of this
paper. The chief apparent difference, at least in summer, between
the Stoat and the Weasel, is that of size. The Stoat, I should say,
is fully double the weight and bulk of the Weasel, though in length
it only exceeds it by some four inches. In winter, however — at least
in severe winters — a very striking difference takes place, as the
Weasel retains its summer coat of reddish-brown, while that of the
Stoat becomes pure white, the tip of the tail only excepted, which
remains jet-black. No prettier little animal exists in Britain than
the Stoat, when clothed in its wintry habit of snowy white, con-

132 Transactions of tJie [Sess.

trasting as it does with the bright black of its tail. It is the skin of
this lowly creature that has for ages ornamented kings, and adorned
alike grave judges and gay ladies. The name of Stoat, given to this
variety of Weasel, is said to be merely a corruption of the word
" stout," in reference to its robust make ; while the designation of
" ermine " is believed to have been given to it because Armenia is
suj^posed to be the country where it is most abundant.

The question as to the cause of certain mammals and birds chang-
ing their varied summer colour to pure white in winter is a very
interesting one, and in some respects I think a very obscure one.
Of course, roughly speaking, it seems to be a provision .of nature to
assimilate the colour of the bird or animal to the snow -covered
ground, of which, for some months, they are to be inhabitants. This,
no doubt, must act as a protection to the creature itself, and also, as
regards the carnivora, it must facilitate their securing their prey.
But the question which must immediately arise is this, If Providence
is so kind to the Stoat, why is it so unkind to its cousin-german the
Weasel % No two creatures can be more alike. They are alike in
race, in appearance, in habits, and, I may add, in habitats. Yet the
Stoat is furnished with a snowy coat for winter, and the poor Weasel
is left out in the cold. It has been matter of discussion among
naturalists whether, in changing their colour to white in winter,
animals change their hair, or whether the existing hair becomes
white. This question, I think, was set at rest by Captain Eoss, the
famous J^orth Sea navigator. He placed a Lemming which still
retained its summer fur where it was exposed to a cold of 30° below
zero, and the result was that it became partially white on the day
following, and at the end of a week was entirely so. Stoats do not
become white all over at the same time, but break out in white
patches, and in passing from brown to white there is a transition
state when they have a j)iebald appearance. It requires a consider-
able amount of cold to turn Stoats white, and this winter has been
so mild that I do not believe there will be a single white Stoat in
Scotland. In a severe winter I have shot a Stoat as white as the
new-fallen snow I trod on, whilst on the 16th of January of a mild
winter I have shot a Stoat which had not in any way changed its
colour. I should like to try the experiment of subjecting a Weasel
to a cold of minus 30°, as Captain Eoss did the Lemming, to see if
it too Avould turn white, — but woe to the man who did so ! He
would have aU the anti-vivisection old ladies down upon him, who
would place him in an atmosphere disagreeably warm. Though fl
have been familiar with Stoats all my life, it is during the last nine
years that I have been in Islay that I have had the most frequent
opportunities of observing their habits.

Stoats in Islay are only too abundant, yet there is not a single
Weasel in the island, which is in itself a rather singular variation in

1883-84.] Ed 1)1 bu rgh Na tii j-a lists' Field Chi b. 133

the distribution of the two animals. While islands enjoy the society
of many species of birds, the quadrupeds are necessarily more or less
restricted in number, and I think it mixst ever remain a curious
question how the selection has been made, — why certain animals are
present, whilst others are absent. We have in Islay no Foxes, no
Badgers, no Hedgehogs or Moles, no Squirrels, no Wild-cats, no
AVliite Hares, and no representative of the Weasel tribe except the
Stoat. On the other hand, we can boast of the Red-deer, the Fallow-
deer, and the Eoe-deer. We have the common Hare and the Rabbit.
We have Otters, and Water-voles, and ]\Iice, domestic and long-
tailed and short-tailed, and there are Shrews. We have at least one
variety of Bat, and that one of a large size, with huge ears ; and we
have, of course, multitudes of that constant attendant on man,
the Brown Rat. Here, also. Frogs and Toads are multitudinous.
Lizards are not uncommon, and Adders are very numerous. We
have, too, all the domestic animals, though I cannot just now remem-
ber having noticed either a mule or an ass in Islay. I allude, of
course, to the quadrupeds !

As I have already said, there is a very large number of Stoats, and
I shall now mention a few anecdotes regarding them, as illustrating
their habits and mode of life. I doubt if any creature on earth,
insects excluded, is so fearless and ferocious as the Stoat. He seems
indeed to look upon even his arch-enemy, man, with something like
contemptuous indifference. I have often read accounts of small packs
of Stoats (or, as the narrators generally called them. Weasels) volun-
tarily attacking men — rushing upon them and attempting to worry
them ; but I never personally met with any instance of this. Last sum-
mer, however, I had an instance of what a single infuriated Stoat
may dare to do. I have said that there are no Wild-cats in Islay,
but there are numbers of domestic Cats that have gone wild, and
have even been bred in a wild state. These are exceedingly destruc-
tive of all kinds of game. Seeing one of those prowlers, I procured
a couple of traps, and set them for him. Next day no Cat was caught,
but a Stoat Avas. I took one of the traps, and striking the Stoat with
it again and again, put, as I imagined, the little creature out of pain.
It seemed perfectly dead, and I took it out of the trap and threw it
a considerable distance away, where it lay motionless, while I leisurely
reset the two traps. I had just finished, when suddenly the appar-
ently dead Stoat had a resurrection. It got up, and for a second
seemed stupefied, but the instant it caught sight of me, in place of
running off, as any other animal in Britain at least would have done,
it seemed inspired by fury, and " went for me " with what was for it
a roar of rage. It seemed for the moment like a Lilliputian lion, as
it rushed towards me. I had nothing to defend myself with, so I
too gave as loud a roar as I possibly could ; and as it sprang at me,
I struck it with my fist. This stopped it. It turned and fled, and I

134 Transactions of the [Sess.

thought I was seeing the last of it, when the unfortunate wretch had
the strange mishap to run right into the very trap in which it had
originally been caught.

As showing the indifference of Stoats to the presence of man, I
shall give an instance. I was, with a friend, shooting Rabbits, which
were being bolted from their burrows in a steep bank by the aid of
Ferrets. I had wounded a Rabbit, which got into a hole, and a
labourer Avith pick and spade set to work to dig it out. Many shots
were fired, people shouted, and dogs barked, when presently we heard
the cry of a Rabbit in distress, not a yard from the spot where the
man was driving his pick. Presently the Rabbit rolled out of the
hole, and I shot it, when, to my surprise, I discovered the cause of
its cry. It was firmly grasped by a Stoat, and the two creatures were
killed by the same shot. Thus, in spite of guns, men, and dogs, and the
noise of a pick within a yard of it, the reckless Stoat had set to work
to destroy the wounded Rabbit, and allowed itself to be dragged out
into daylight before us all. The following is a still stronger instance
of this little creature's almost contemptu,ous indifference to man.
One of my servants saw a Stoat kill a half-tame black Rabbit on the
lawn, a few yards from the drawing-room windows. He rushed
after the brute, in the hope of killing it. In the middle of the
pursuit a Rabbit happened to cross the Stoat's line of flight. In an
instant it turned aside, sprang on the Rabbit, killed it with one blow,
and, leaving it dead, continued its flight, and ultimately effected
its escape. Polecats, when they were abundant, attacked hen-
houses, and slew the inmates wholesale, turning the place into
a shambles ; but it was during the night they committed their
burglaries, whereas the Stoat will attack and kill poultry in broad
daylight. Again and again I have heard the cry, in recent years,
that a Stoat, or a couple of them, were about the poultry-yard. Run-
ning for a gun, I have found the little brutes had run into a loose wall,
having perhaps been driven ofli" a chicken they had just killed. Then
their curiosity proved their ruin. Ever and anon they would peep
out at you from their fancied security in the wall, and stare impu-
dently at you with their sharp cunning eyes. Poor fellows ! they do
not understand breech-loaders and the swiftness of shot. This curi-
osity, which is a characteristic of the Stoat, often leads them into a
trap. If a little house is built of half-a-dozen bricks, and an opening
left in it, a Stoat, if he sees it, is almost sure to pop in, like Paul
Pry, to see what is inside, and he finds there an iron trap. There is
no better bait for a Stoat than the body of one of his dead brethren.
I had hoped he went to visit his departed relative from motives of
family affection, but I have been told by eyewitnesses that his love
is for the flesh of the deceased — and thus to his other amiable quali-
ties he adds that of cannibalism.

I read the other day, in the ' Field,' an anecdote of a Stoat. A

1883-84.] Edinburgh Naturalists' Field Club. 135

gentleman riding across a field, observed a great commotion amonc a
large flock of Eooks. They had risen from the grass, and were hover-
ing over one of their number which remained fluttering on the ground.
The flock filled the air with angry cries. Just as the gentleman rode
up, the Eook rose slowly from the ground with something attached to
it which the gentleman could not make out ; but when about thirty
yards from the ground, a Stoat, losing its hold of the Crow, fell almost
at the horse's feet, and immediately scampered off, quite unhurt by
its fall.

I have never seen Stoats hunt in packs, but it is certain both
Weasels and Stoats do so. A person once told me he had seen as
many as fifteen running on scent, like a pack of hounds. My cousin,
Mr Skirving of Croys, Kirkcudbrightshire, once saw seven or eight
thus occupied. They were evidently on the trail of a Hare or a
Rabbit, and were keeping well together, uttering a shrill little cry
while they ran. He tlu-ew a stone at them, and killed one of the
pack.

It has frequently been matter of discussion what the nature of
the seeming paralysis may be which Hares and Eabbits often take
when pursued by a Stoat. In the open a Hare could, with the utmost
ease, run quite away from a Stoat or any of the Weasel tribe. Puss
would not be in the slightest danger if she only would trust to her
heels, but she seems to lose her head altogether. She hops about,
rather than runs, in a stupid, helpless sort of manner, till she allows
her tiny foe to leap on her back. A very pleasant book on country
subjects has recently been published, called ' JSTether Lochaber,' by the
clergyman of that Highland parish. The frontispiece represents a
Weasel on the back of a Hare, sucking it to death. On looking at
the text, I see that, though a shepherd carried the Hare to his minister,
he did not produce the Weasel ; and I strongly suspect it was our
stouter friend, the Stoat, which did the deed.

Having now given several instances of the boldness of the Stoat,
I shall conclude with an anecdote which shows that couracreous animal
in a totally different light. It proves that a poor timid Eabbit, which
is helpless when its own safety is alone concerned, may become a
heroine when the lives of its little ones are in question. One day
last summer we were driving along a road with the sea on one side
and a rabbit-warren on the other. On the road in front of us we
saw some creature conducting itself in a most extraordinary manner.
It was rushing backwards and forwards in a strange eccentric sort of
way. Soon we saw that it was a Eabbit, and, from its fur, evidently a
mother, engaged in mortal combat with a Stoat. But we were vastly
surprised when we saw that the Stoat was the pursued, and not the
pursuer. The Stoat fled, the Eabbit madly chased. Its mode of
fight was to butt at the Stoat like a sheep. Sometimes it hit it, and
then the Stoat was sent flying. Oftener the lithe Stoat eluded the

VOL. I. K

136 Transactions of the [Sess.

blow. It became clear tbat the Eabbit must eventually kill tbe Stoat
if the latter did not find some haven of refuge, which it fortunately
did in a thick clump of briers. Then the victorious Eabbit went
back to its young. Oddly enough, I was much amused during the
same month (last July) by an encounter conducted on the same
principles, by a brooding Grouse and a large Irish Setter. I was
taking a stroll, the dog being with me, when suddenly a Grouse (the
mother Grouse of course) started up in the heather, and, with wonder-
ful fury, and every feather of her body on end, rushed at the dog.
The big Setter stood for a moment pointing, and then, all training, all
discipline at an end, he gave me one look, and, with his tail between
his legs, turned and fled. I think it did honour to both sexes. It
was glorious in the female Grouse to attack a huge animal in defence
of her nursery ; and it was manly and proper on such an occasion
that the big masculine dog should run away. Truly does Lord
Byron say —

"There's nothing whets the beak, and arms the claw,
Like an invasion of our ducks and ducklings."

v.— CONCERNING LYCOPODS AND SELAGINELLAS: PAST

AND PRESENT.

By Mr JOHN LINDSAY.

{Bead Jan. 24, 1884.)

In the class of plants known as Vascular Cryptogams there are two
divisions with which all are less or more familiar : these comprise the
Equisetaceae and the Filices — Horse-tails and Ferns. There is a third
division, however (now termed by Sachs "Dichotomesi," from the
bifurcating nature of the roots and branches of the plants comprising
it), which may not be so generally well known, and it is here pro-
posed to make a few remarks on two of the genera found in this
class, and which are the most highly developed and most prominent
members of it — viz., Lycopods and Selaginellas. It is true that these
are but sparsely represented by native species, for in the British flora
we find only five Lycopods and one Selaginella ; yet the exotic forms
of each are numerous, and often beautiful. Many species and varieties
of SelaginellEe are to be found luxuriating in greenhouses ; but the
exotic Lycopods are so difficult to cultivate that they are, with rare
exceptions, only known to us by herbarium specimens. Our indigenous
Club-mosses, likewise, though found flourishing in their native habitats,
on heath, moor, or bog, do not take kindly to their new quarters when

1883-84.] Edinburgh Naturalists' Field Club. 137

introduced to a more civilised state of existence. Yet these sliy
and intractable plants can boast of a very ancient ancestry, for their
representatives flourished in the " forest primeval " long ages before
man was ushered on the scene, and when it could truly be said of
the vegetable kingdom that " there were giants in the earth in those
days." Of this the Lycojpods furnish an illustration ; for the lowly
plant now found trailing along the ground, a mere slender stalk,
to the length of a few feet, was then an upright stately tree, reaching
occasionally to a height of 100 feet, and measuring twelve feet in cir-
cumference at the base of the stem. We have thus an example be-
fore us, not of "development," but of its counterpart, " degradation."
Our subject, therefore, naturally divides itself into " past " and " pre-
sent " : we shall take the latter division first, and say a little con-
cerning Lycopods and Selaginellas as these are found now subsisting
on the earth.

Beginning with the Lycopods, — as already remarked, there are but
five native species, and some of these, as Lycopodium annotinum, and
in particular L. inundatum, are rather difficult to find. The others,
however — L. alpinum, L. clavatum, and L. Selago — are more
abundant. It is unnecessary to give here a minute description of
the distinctive features of each, seeing these may be easily learnt from
any standard " Flora," as that of Hooker or Babington. A few re-
marks, however, may be made on the mode of growth, structure, and
distribution of the Lycopodiaceae.

All our British Lycopods except L. Selago have creeping stems,
and bear their spore-cases singly, in curious terminal spikes of modified
leaves. In L. Selago the stem is erect, and the sporangia are borne
in the axils of the leaves, and often distributed impartially over the
whole stem, though sometimes confined to the upper part of it. In
this species bulbUs, or small buds, are also found at the upper part
of the stem. The sporangia of Lycopods fulfil a precisely similar
function to those of Ferns and Equiseta, for example, in the same
class, in giving rise to a prothallium which bears both antheridia and
archegonia — this forming the first or sexual generation of the plant.
But while the spores of Ferns germinate readily, and the prothallium
is borne on the surface of the ground, and has therefore been often
investigated, the spores of Lycopods are most difficult to germinate,
and the prothallium is underground. It has thus scarcely ever been
seen by any one, in spite of the many attempts made to grow it. In
1857 Professor De Bary partly succeeded with the prothallium of
L. inundatum; and in 1872 Fankhauser found in Switzerland, grow-
ing amongst moss, perfect prothallia of L. annotinum. Further than
the observations then made, little or nothing is yet known of the
development of the embryo.

The second or asexual generation of the Lycopod is the perfect
plant, with root, stem, and branches, developed from the moncecious

138 Transactions of the [Sess.

prothallium, bearing both antlieridia and arcbegonia. Tbougb the
spores which give rise to this prothallium are alike in size and shape,
it does not necessarily follow that they are hermaphrodite. In other
words, it is quite possible that there may be some occult difference
betwixt them, and that certain spores always produce antheridia or
male organs, and others archegonia or female organs, as in the
Selaginellas and Ehizocarps with differing spores. This is one of the
points in the germination of Lycopods on which we have as yet no
certain knowledge.

The normal stem of the Lycopodiacefe is thickly covered with
:small narrow leaves, these being simple, unbranched, and sessile, and
possessing only a midrib without lateral veins. The structure of the
stem is very characteristic. It is composed of an axial cylinder,
surrounded by layers of cellular tissue, the whole being enclosed in
looser tissue or parenchyma. From the cellular tissue the long
^adventitious roots found in most species proceed. We will again
have occasion to refer to this stem-structure when speaking of the
fossil Lepidodendra.

Lycopods are natives of many parts of the world. Besides our
native species already enumerated, numerous forms, many of them
very beautiful and some rather curious, are found on the Continent,
in the United States, in Canada, the East Indies, Peru, the Fiji
Islands, &c. As already said, it has proved to be almost an impossi-
bility to grow the exotic forms successfully in greenhouses, and we
have to rest content with dried specimens of these for a knowledge
of their form and appearance. -*■

Passing on to the Selaginellas, we are first called upon to notice
our solitary native species, Selaginella selaginoides. This is the
Lycopodium selaginoides of Linnaeus, but is generically separated from
the Lycopods by the possession of two kinds of spores, large and
small — or, as they are usually termed, macrospores and microspores.
The plant possesses close afi&nities, nevertheless, with the Lycopods, as
evidenced by the name " Selaginella," which is the diminutive form
of " Selago," the old term for Lycopodium, and said to be derived
from the Gaelic, meaning " beneficial to the eyesight." The Club-
mosses, indeed, were at one time frequently used medicinally, but are
now banished almost entirely from the British pharmacopoeia, though
still in favour on the Continent. It occurs to one, on a little reflec-
tion, that Selaginella selaginoides is not a very appropriate name for
this plant, now that it has been removed from the class of Lycopods,
and that the synonym S. spinosa of Babington and others would be
much more descriptive of it. But as it is always as well not to disturb
a familiar name without very good cause shown, it may be wiser to

^ The exotic Lycopods exhibited were from the Herbarium at the E-oyal
Botanic Garden, having been kindly lent by Dr Macfarlane.

1883-84-] Edinburgh Naturalists' Field Chib. 139

retain the better known nomenclature, and continue to term it Sela-
ginella selaginoides. It is pretty widely distributed in Britain, from
Wales northwards, and may be found on the Pentland and Lomond
hills, as well as on most of our Highland liQls, growing in boggy
ground.

As noted above, we have numerous exotic Selaginellas growing in
greenhouses, a few of these being perfectly hardy, so that this is a
class of plants which can always be examined in the living state.
Some forms, as S. Poulterii, S. helvetica, and S. Kraussiana with
its varieties aurea and argentea, grow very luxuriantly, and form a
lovely carpeting for Ferns, under a bell-glass or in a Wardian case.
The stem of the Selaginellas is almost always flat and slender,
branching abundantly. Its structural form is somewhat akin to
that of Ferns, in so far as that there is no axial cylinder, and the
vascular tissue is arranged in separate bundles, the form varying in
the different species. The leaves are small, often of two sizes, and,
like the Lycopods, have only one fibro- vascular bundle penetrating
them — viz., the midrib. At the apex the leaves are altered to form
a spike, which carries the fructification — the two kinds of spores
already mentioned. The macrospores, or female spores, are generally
four in number, but sometimes two or eight are found ; while the
microspores, or male spores, are numerous. The former are borne at
the base of the fertile spike, while the latter are found on the upper
part. Both kinds of spores develop a small rudimentary prothallus
within the spore-case, before the spores are shed. It is extremely
interesting to trace the connection between fiowerless and flowering
plants as represented by the Selaginellas. Indeed they seem to form,
in a marked degree, the connecting link between these two great
classes of plants, joining on the higher Cryi>togams in the one class
to the lower Gymnosperms in the other. This is the more evident
when we consider that the antheridia and archegonia respectively of
the one have their analogue in the pollen-grains and the embryo-sac
and ovule of the other. It is true that the Ehizocarps, including the
aquatic or sub-aquatic Salvinia and Marsilia, with Isoetes and our
native Pillwort, also possess two kinds of spores ; but these Vascular
Cryptogams are all less highly developed in their structure than the
Selaginellas. Again, attached to the embryo of flowering-plants tliere
is always present what is termed a suspensor, from which tlie first
root proceeds. Among Cryptogams, Selaginellas alone are furnished
with this body. A good illustration is thus supplied of the dictum
of Linnasus, "Xatura non saltus facit"; for here we find the members
of the less highly developed class of plants which are at the top of
the scale in that class beginning to anticipate, as it were, the repro-
ductive structure and mode of growth of the lowlier members of the
other and higher class.

Unlike the embryo of Lycopodium, that of SelagineUa has been

140 Transactions of the [Sess.

thoroughly investigated, since 1869, by those patient workers, the
German botanists, and the results of their observations can readily be
learnt by any who have a liking for that particular kind of study.
When we know more regarding the growth of the embryonic Lyco-
podium, we shall be better able to compare the two in this respect.
One point, however, is clearly evident from the remarks already
made — viz., that with something of similarity, there is yet enough of
diversity between the two genera to warrant their separation. Yet
we find growers and others frequently confounding the two, and
indeed speaking and writing of both sections as " Lycopodiums." In
some botanical works, also, where we should have expected greater
accuracy, the same indefiniteness of statement may still be noted.

In examining the thirty different forms of greenhouse Selaginellee
exhibited, it will at once be admitted that many of them are very
beautiful, rivalling Ferns in their graceful form and habit. Among
these, there is at least one species which calls for special remark.
This is S. lepidophylla, so called from the curious scale-like markings
on the stem and leaves. It is a native of South America, and is a
rather rare plant in cultivation. From the hygroscopic properties
it possesses, it has been popularly named the " resurrection plant."
All that is needed to revive it is immersion in water, when the ball-
like mass it assumes in the dried state soon begins to swell out, and
the leaf-shoots to unroll. The specimen shown is believed to be
about fifty years old, and still retains its reanimating powers, as
may be proved by ocular demonstration.

Like the Lycopods, Selaginellas are found in many parts of the
globe, especially the warmer countries, as Mexico, Jamaica, the East
Indies, South America including Brazil, and Japan.

Turning now to the second part of our subject — the ancient repre-
sentatives of the Lycopodiaceae — a panorama of vast forests in the
world's youth, crowded with giant forms, is called up before the
mental vision. In these forests there grew not only Lycopodiaceous
plants, but also, and chiefly, Ferns, both herbaceous and arborescent,
with Equisetace^, Coniferse, &c. If mere bulk is considered, the flora
which reached its greatest perfection in the Carboniferous era, existing
for a period of time to which Ave can only apply the word " seons," was
certainly the grandest that ever flourished on our continent. And
what shall we say of the flora of N'orth America, concerning which it
has been estimated that the older coal-deposits of the l!^ew "World are
" twenty times as great as all those of all Europe put together " ! ■"■
But we are at present interested only in the Lycopodiacete, represented
at that period by the well-known Lepidodendron or " scale-tree," by
Lepidophloios or " scale-bark," and by other allied genera. Of Lepi-

1 Hugh Miller's 'Testimony of the Rocks,' Lect. III.,—" The Two Records,
Mosaic and Geological."

1883-84-] Edinburgh Naturalists' Field Club. 141

dodendra alone, more than forty species have been constituted, dis-
tinguished by the beautiful markings on the stem; but as these
markings are found to vary on the same stem, the number is prob-
ably overestimated. The genus Lepidodendron has been described
as comprising "numerous large arborescent plants, which attain their
maximum in the Carboniferous period, but Avhich appear to commence
in the Upper Silurian, and are well represented in the Devonian. . . .
The bark is marked with numerous rhombic or oval scars, arranged
in quincunx order, and indicating the points where leaves were
formerly attached. The branches were covered with slender, pointed
leaves, closely crowded together; and the fructification was carried at
the ends of the branches in the form of cones or spikes. These cones
have generally been described under the name of Lepidostrohi ; an'd
they consist of a central axis, surrounded by imbricated scales or
bracts, each of which supports a sporangium or spore-case." ■*■ In
addition to this graphic description, it may be mentioned that these
Lepidostrohi or fruiting-organs are generally empty in the fossil state,
the spores having been shed. But we know for certain that many, if not
all, of them possessed both macrospores and microspores — the micro-
spores being produced in the upper sporangia of the spikes, the macro-
spores in the lower, or in the same relative position as in Selaginellse.
That the spores must have been present in vast numbers is evident
from the remnants which have been left us, and which yet form such
a mass that seams of coal several feet in thickness are almost wholly
composed of them. It is owing to their presence that shales and
several English coals owe their high degree of inflammability. Their
existence in coal was noticed fifty years ago, but their nature was
then unknown. The spores of some of our native Lycopods, as L.
clavatum and L. Selago, are also very inflammable. The yellow powder
which issues from their spore-cases is known in Britain as Lycopode or
Vegetable-brimstone, and in Germany as Lightning-meal and Witch-
meal. It was largely used in theatres for producing artificial lightning,
but modern science is providing electricity for this purpose.

Another feature of the fossil Lepidodendra claiming attention is
the structure of the stem. "We have already seen that the stem of
Lycopodium is composed of a central cylinder of fibro-vascular bun-
dles, surrounded by a zone of cellular tissue, which becomes looser as
it proceeds outAvards to the epidermis. The Lepidodendron stem, in
the young stage, was almost identical in its structure. Indeed, if we
leave out of account, for a moment, the difference in size, the affinities
between the living and extinct forms are seen to be very close. But
as the extinct genus, while growing in the forest, became more mature,
and the tree required greater strength and stability, a curious modi-
fication of the structure took place. An outer cylinder of vascular
tissue was formed, the vessels being arranged in radiating wedges,
^ Nicholson's 'Manual of Palteontology, ' vol. ii. p. 457.

142 Transactions of the [Sess.

separated by medullary rays, growing by additions to their exterior
margins. In fact, if this description is a correct one, we have here a
Cryptogam exhibiting a true exogenous structure. On this point,
however, a tough battle has been waged. Prof. Williamson and
others hold to tliis growth being really of an exogenous nature ; while
the opposing party, headed by Mr Carruthers, maintain that there is
no true exogenous growth, and that the so-called wedges are but the
result of the fibro-vascular bundles proceeding from the central axis
to the branches and leaves. The final decision, therefore, may be
said to be still in abeyance.-*-

When we consider the fragmentary nature of the material with
which the pal^obotanist has in most cases to deal, it is not surprising
that the results are often unsatisfactory. Thus, the stem, leaves, and
fruit of one and the same plant have been each assigned to different
genera. The Calamites were originally figured upside-down, with the
roots in the air and doing duty for branches. Stigmaria was for some
time a generic designation, but now it has been satisfactorily proved
that what were so termed are but the rootlets of Sigillaria and Lepi-
dodendra. The affinities of the fossil Sigillaria have not yet been
decided. Principal Dawson of Montreal considers them to be allied
to the Cycads, while Mr Carruthers holds them, with some show of
reason, to be Cryptogamic and Lycopodiaceous. What were really
the varied forms of the ancient " Club-mosses," or how great their
number, it is impossible to fix with any degree of certainty. Indeed
it is remarkable how much original work yet remains to be done in
this special domain of science, although so many patient and enthusi-
astic investigators have already occupied the field. Every discovery
helps on the cause of truth, and adds to our stores of information ;
and Nature has many secrets yet locked up in her breast, ready to be
yielded up to the true knight-errant. In this quest some of our
members have already been ardently engaged, and we may hope to
hear the results of their labours at a future time. Meanwhile, if I
have only been successful in the much humbler task of drawing
attention to this subject, and of showing that our lowly Club-mosses
have a most interesting life-history, stretching far back into the past
ages, then these remarks have not missed their purj)0se.

[Besides plant-specimens and specimens of fossil Lepidodendra and Stro-
bili, the following preparations were shown under the microscope in illustra-
tion of the above — viz., (1) trans, sect, of Lycopodium stem ; (2) trans, sect, of
Selaginella stem ; (3) longit. sect, of do. ; (4) Sporangia of Lj^copodium ;
(5) Sporangia of Selaginella ; (6) trans, sect, of (fossil) Lepidodendron stem.]

1 In connection with this controverted subject, see 'Trans. Bot. Soc.,' vol.
viii., "On the Structure and Affinities of Lepidodendron and Calamites," by
Mr Wm. Carruthers ; and Prof. Williamson on Fossil Lepidodendron, in
Sachs' ' Text-Book of Botany,' 2d ed., pp. 4S4, 485.

1883-84-] Edinburgh Naturalists' Field Club. 143

VI.— THE SYLVIID.E OR WARBLERS.

By Mr ARCH. CRAIG, Jun.

(Read Jan. 24, 1884.)

Perhaps no birds attract the attention of the generahty of people in
a lesser degree than do the Sylviidte, or Warblers ; and in contra-
distinction to that assertion, few or none possess a greater interest in
the eyes of the naturalist. The first statement may be accounted for
readily enough in any of the following Avays, such as the diminutive-
ness of the species — their shy, retuing habits, which render observation
at times difficult — their total want of gay plumage, and, in addition,
the peculiar character of their haunts, — all combined having a tend-
ency to make the average observer pass them by in many instances
unheeded. If they partake of all these apparent disadvantages, the
question may naturally be asked, What is there which makes them
so prepossessing to the ornithologist 1 Having put the query, the
duty devolves upon me to attempt an answer, which shall be done as
briefly as j)ossible. The fact of their migration from the more
genial climes of Southern Europe and ^Northern Africa to our colder
and comparatively sunless country, is of itself matter of sufficient
moment to recommend them to all lovers of bird-life. When we
take into consideration the great distance to be covered, and the
dangers that have to be encountered en route, it is indeed wonderful
how such little creatures manage to perform the journey in safety :
and besides, the regularity with which they, generally sj)eaking, re-
appear in their old resorts at, or very near, the same period every
spring, calls for special remark. The migration of birds is undoubt-
edly a theme of surpassing interest, but it is too large and difficult to
be attempted by one possessing such slight knowledge of the subject
as myself. Although, as has been already mentioned, their plumage
is of a sober cast, this defect, if it be a defect, is more than com-
pensated for by the beauty and peculiarity of their song, which,
delightful in itself, is enhanced by the extraordinary powers of imi-
tation with which many of the species are endowed. Were size of
body to be taken as the groundwork on which to gauge the vocal
powers, very faint music might be expected to issue from the throats
of Warblers : but bulk has evidently nothing to do with the matter,
as it is no uncommon feature for several of the species to emit sound
that does not seemingly fall far short in point of volume to that
produced by much larger birds. To prevent misapprehension on this
point, however, there is one thing to be said, that although, to the
ears of a person in close proximity to the songster, the sound appears
to rival that of the larger species, yet it does not in reality penetrate

144

Transactions of the

[Sess.

to anything like the same distance, "which fact may in part be
explained by its not possessing the same force, as well as from the
sound being deadened by the thick foliage or brushwood amidst
which the bird usually takes up its position. It is to this power of
mimicry that we are indebted for much of the pleasure derived from
the songs of several species ; for in the case of the Sedge-Warbler,
Whitethroat, &c., the natural melody is somewhat disappointingly
broken up by a guttural kind of twittering, curious enough in itself,
but certainly not tuneful. Whatever may be the difference of ideas as
to the quality of the music, there can be but one opinion as to the
quantity, the little singers being no niggards in that respect, as for
some considerable portion of theu' residence here they warble more
or less continuously during the day, and some among them prolong
the strain far into the night as well. Being to a large extent insect-
ivorous, the benefit they confer on our country during their sojourn
is an important item, and far exceeds the trifling damage committed
upon fruit or other garden produce, of which they are sometimes
accused. As an illustration, in passing, of the narrow-mindedness that
prevails in some quarters, — a gardener, of average intelligence on
ordinary subjects, gravely informed me lately that it would be much
better in every way for the success of his labours if all birds were
destroyed, no distinction being made on his part between insect-
ivorous and granivorous species. It is almost superfluous to remark,
that with a man who held such sweeping opinions, argument was out
of the question. In a merely aesthetic point of view, the Warblers
must always be welcome visitants, as, arriving in large numbers, they
help greatly to enliven with their presence those woods and hedge-
rows which, during the long and dreary winter months, have borne
such a cold and deserted looking aspect.

With this short introduction, we may now turn to examine more
particularly the birds themselves. Properly speaking, the family
known as Sylviidse contains other birds, such as the Eobin, Redstart,
Chats, &c., but in this instance the term is only meant to comprehend
those which are generally recognised by the title " Warblers." Of
these Yarrell gives the names of twenty which have visited England ;
some of these, however, come under the category of chance stragglers
only: but in our less favoured country of Scotland we can barely lay
claim to half that number. These are as follows : —

Blackcap, Sylvia atricapilla.
Garden-Warbler, Sylvia salicaria.
Whitethroat, Sylvia rufa.
Lesser Whitethroat, Sylvia curruca.
Sedge- Warbler, Acrocephalus schceno-

bce7ius.
Wood- Warbler, Phylloscopus sibilatrix.

Willow - Warbler, Phylloscopus tro-

chillis.
Chiff- Chaff, Phylloscopus collyhita.
Grasshopper - Warbler, Acrocephalus

nmvius.
Reed - Warbler, Acrocephalus stre-

perus.

1883-84.] Edinburgh Naturalists' Field Club. 145

The last three are the least common — the two latter, indeed, being
rarce aves.

ISTotwithstanding many false rumours to the contrary, that prince
of songsters, the jSTightingale, does not visit Scotland ; but, as com-
pensation for the loss, we have the Blackcap, whose melody is said,
by those whose good fortune it is to have heard both birds, to be
little inferior in sweetness and flexibility. The latter cannot be
reckoned a common species anywhere in Scotland, although its range
is extensive, having been found nesting in Glen Urquhart, Inverness-
shire; and, according to ornithological works, specimens have been
procured as far north as Caithness and Orkney. The examples
shown here were shot at Kirkhill, on the banks of the South Esk,
near Arniston, — where, indeed, most of the others were obtained as
well. Both sides of the river at that point are lined with rows of
very large trees, and close to the water's edge grow an abundance of
small scrubby bushes and other tangled vegetation, which render the
locality a favourite breeding-ground of Warblers — so much so, that
within a radius of half a mile six of the species already named are to
be seen in the proper season. The season, without being too exact
as to a week or so, may be said to commence about the middle of
April and end with the last days of September — although the various
species do not necessarily arrive together, some being much later in
putting in an appearance than others ; and a certain allowance must of
course be made for favourable and unfavourable weather, Avhich may
either hasten or retard their arrival. The male, as the name implies,
has a black cap on his head, which, quoting the authority of Dr
Bechstein, has given rise to the sobriquet of " Monk," applied to it
in Germany, from a fancied resemblance to the cowl of a member of
that fraternity — this distinctive mark precluding the possibility of
its being mistaken for the female, which, in lieu of the black hood,
has one of reddish brown. As must be evident to any one who' has
tried the experiment, it is next to impossible to convey an adequate
idea in writing of the song of any particular bird, ancl it is only by
actual listening that a true knowledge can be acquired. Again, from
the habits of imitation previously touched on, it is sometimes a
matter of no small difficulty, particularly when the bird is not visible,
to discriminate between one species of Warbler and another, even
although we may have come to the decision that the singer is assur-
edly only a mocking-bird after all. There is a clear rich tone,
however, about the lay of the Blackcap, that stamps it at once as of
superior merit to that of its fellows, being more sustained throughout,
and not so subject to the constant breaks and harsh interjections that
mar the song of the Sedge-Warbler. The nest, which is a pretty
structure, made of toughish grass and other fibrous material, is
usually placed in a thick bush or garden-hedge, a few feet above the
ground. If unobserved, the bird sits very close; but when discovered

146 Transactions of the [Sess.

it immediately shows its anxiety and resentment by restlessly skulking
amidst the undergrowth close at hand, endeavouring at the same time
to conceal its movements from the intruder. If the eggs are inter-
fered with, the bird is very apt to desert the nest altogether.

Next in order comes the Garden- Warbler, which partakes of the
same shy nature as the last — if anything, being more anxious to
secrete itself and keep out of view. When the foliage becomes
dense, towards the end of May, it is a pretty severe trial on the eye-
sight, not to mention the patience, to discover the bird, even when
from its singing we know that it must be in the immediate neigh-
bourhood, as it shifts about so assiduously among the branches as
frequently to baffle all our attempts. At one moment you feel
certain that you have brought the sound to a focus (if it is permis-
sible to make use of the word in such a sense), and expect every
moment to catch sight of the songster, when a few seconds afterwards
it appears to emanate from a different quarter altogether, — and so on,
untn the listener is sometimes fain from very weariness to give up
the task as hopeless. Its note at times is uncommonly like that of
the Blackbird, and apt to deceive even one who may consider himself
an adept in diagnosing the songs of different species. A certain safe-
guard against falling into that error, however, is to listen attentively
at the moment the loud note dies away, and the characteristic low chat-
tering of the Warbler will in most cases then become audible — a sure
index to the singer's identity. It is not easy of decision whether .the
Blackcap or the Garden- Warbler is the commoner in Scotland, so
much depending apparently upon locality; but, judging from my
own imperfect experience, I should be inclined to give the precedence
to the latter, the more especially as the Garden- Warbler being of a
sombre and less distinctive plumage, its occurrence is more likely to
be overlooked than that of the Blackcap, whose sable top-knot would
readily attract attention and be the subject of remark. Stobo,
Peeblesshire, may be recorded as a locality where it breeds.

Turning now to the Whitethroat, we arrive at a species of perhaps
more frequent occurrence than any, save the WiUow-Wren ; at least
appearances go far to prove so, from its habit of resorting to the out-
skirts of woods, and also in a great measure to hedges that border the
public pathways, thus giving passers-by better opportunities of obser-
vation than do the other members of the family. Beds of JSTettles
and parts of woods where there is a mass of matted vegetation in the
shape of Brambles, Thorns, &c., are also favourite habitats, and it has
a fashion of dodging about among these latter that calls to mind a
similar trait in the character of the Hedge- Sparrow. The common
name is derived from the purity of the white feathers on the throat,
which, along with the bluish-grey head and reddish-brown margins
of the wing-feathers, are sufficiently marked objects to prevent con-
fusion with other species. The breast during life is tinged with a

1883-84-] Edinburgh Naturalists Field Chib. 147

beautiful rose-coloured hue, but it is noticeable that after death this
fades to a great extent, therefore in stuffed specimens the proper
plumage is not retained. The male throws a vast deal of energy and
pith into his singing, whether in self-gratification, or with a desire to
appear fascinating in the eyes of his female partner, is a problem
scarcely worth our while attempting to solve — a combination of both
these influences, along with a spirit of rivalry, being perhaps the real
incentive to such vivacious action. There is one peculiarity about
the Whitethroat that, so far as I am aware, does not pertain to any
of the other Warblers, which is, that very often, while flirting about
the bushes, he ascends abruptly, with a strange circular movement,
for a few yards into the air, as if actuated by some sudden impulse,
and Avhile performing this evolution sings lustily until the descent
is made. Likewise, in watching the bird steadily, it may be seen
hopping from twig to twig, or ferreting its way among the intricacies
of the hedge and undergrowth, shaking its tail and wings, erecting
the feathers on the crown of the head, and all the while rattling
away with an evident sense of enjoyment. The song, of which there
is full measure "heaped up and overflowing," is more curious than
beautiful, there being an absence of the mellow clear ring that is the
predominant feature of the last two species. With reference to the
sexes in Warblers, the females in most, save the Blackcap already
noted, resemble the males, but upon close inspection can be distin-
guished from the last named by the plumage, on the aggregate, being
duller and less distinct.

From various sources we find that the Lesser Whitethroat occurs
in several districts of Scotland, but having no personal knowledge of
it or its habits, I shall not presume to give a description, as such
would simply be extracted from a work on ornithology. The Sedge-
Warbler is a tolerably common bird all over Scotland, and is generally
found in moist reedy places, or by the sides of ponds and rivers,
although it may often be observed as well in thick hedges, and among
long grass at a considerable distance from water. Nevertheless, as
a rule, its proper habitat is close to watery ground. The plumage
is sufficiently diverse from the other Warblers to prevent mistakes
being made ; but as it sedulously conceals itself as much as possible
from view, the song is undoubtedly the surest method of identifica-
tion. The latter, once heard, is easily retained in the memory, being
formed of a medley of guttural and very clear liquid notes, the latter
thrown in promiscuously, as it were. It displays a deal of vigour in
its singing, and would seem to have a more than ordinary aptitude
for imitating the notes of other species. When most birds have re-
tired to roost, and all sound is hushed, it is somewhat startling in a
lonely spot to hear this little creature burst unexpectedly into full
song, with as much gusto as if the sun still shone high in the heavens,
night seeming to it on those occasions as congenial as day. This

148 Transactions of the [Sess.

habit has given birth to numerous premature reports among folks
whose knowledge of bird-life is not always to be accepted as accurate ;
consequently the upshot is that many an individual, on hearing the
unwonted strains for the first time, immediately jumps to the conclu-
sion that he has been listening to a veritable Nightingale, and, elated
with what he considers to be a wonderful discovery, forthwith seeks
to enlighten an unsophisticated public, and immortalise himself at
the same time, by chronicling the fact in the columns of some local
newspaper. As must be in the recollection of many, we had several
examples of such letter-writing a few years ago in the columns of the
' Scotsman.' Just one word more about the Sedge- Warbler before
passing on to the next. The assertion that a stone thrown into the
thicket where the bird is lurking causes it to renew the song, is some-
times scouted at as nonsense, but notwithstanding, I believe it to be
quite correct, having frequently tried the experiment with successful
results. Of course, to maintain that such a procedure will always
produce the desired effect would be absurd ; but, in the majority of
cases, the plan will be found to work well.

The other aquatic species known as the Eeed-Warbler is very rare,
so in its case the same course must be adojDted as was done with the
Lesser Whitethroat — merely mention its occasional appearance, and
turn to the more familiar Wood- Wren. This and the Willow-Wren
are sometimes confounded, but a glance at the two species suffices to
disconnect them, the Wood- Warbler being greener in colour, longer in
body and wings, and moreover, it has a much yellower streak over the
eyes. The Wood-Wren also affects the neighbourhood of tall old
timber in a greater degree than the other ; and the songs, besides, are
quite divergent. In some parts of Mid-Lothian, particularly the valley
of the South Esk, the Wood- Wren is abundant, but taking it all in
all, is not nearly so numerous as the Willow- Warbler. I have some-
times fancied, while listening to the Wood- Warbler, that several of the
notes bear a family likeness to those of the Common Wren {Troglo-
dytes parvulus), both possessing in common a curious succession of
sounds, the effect of which cannot perhaps be more happily expressed
than by applying to it the old Scotch word " birling." It is observable
that some Wood- Wrens are much brighter in the green and yellow
tints than others, the age of the birds probably regulating this differ-
ence— it being natural to suppose that as a bird becomes older and
more mature, the intensity of its colouring will increase likewise. The
Willow- Warbler is by far the best known in this country, and seems,
both from its numbers and lively motions, to be more associated in
our minds with the recurrence of spring than any other sjDecies.
They must indeed be dull and unsympathetic by nature who do not
welcome this little visitor, and rejoice to hear once again his simple
modest song, which, though it lacks the fine resonance of its more
accomplished compatriots, somehow appeals to the heart with greater

1883-84.] EdinburgJi Naturalists Field Club. 149

success, this result being probably aided by the performer's confiding
disj)Osition, which demeanour other Warblers do not show to anything
like the same extent. It is not by any means a shy bird, but will
admit of a near approach, in which respect it differs very markedly
from others of the Sylviidae. In favourable districts during May the
woods actually swarm with them ; and if this is the case before nidi-
fication, it is trebly so after the labours of incubation are over, when
the parents, accompanied by their offspring, hunt the woods for food.
At that season, if one only remains quiet in the vicinity of their
haunts, he will often be surrounded by whole families so intent upon
searching the branches for insects, as, heedless of his presence, to
venture within reaching distance, all the while chirping to each other
in a low melancholy tone that carries Avith it a singularly soothing
effect. Both the Wood and Willow Wrens build their nests on the
ground, in form like a dome, with the entrance-hole at the side, a
sloping bank being a favourite situation, where the long herbage
drooping over forms an excellent screen from the prying eyes of
idle boys, whose bird-nesting jjroclivities are too notorious to need
comment.

The Chiff-chaff is almost identical in plumage with the Willow-
Wren, but the legs and feet of the former are much darker in colour,
which test may be safely applied to dead specimens should any doubt
arise in one's mind. As yet I have not been fortunate enough to
identify the bird in Mid-Lothian, and have arrived at the conclusion,
prematurely perhaps, that it must be very local in its distribution.
Our President, Mr Herbert, informs me that he has heard it at Polton,
on the l^orth Esk, among the tall Fir-trees there, and more recently
on the Water of Leith near Colinton ; but frequent searches on my
own part, in the woods contiguous to the South Esk, have not as yet
been productive of good results. As a sequel to this remark, the sug-
gestion just occurs to my mind, that if those members of our Club
who are ornithologically inclined would take notes of all the birds,
with locality and date, observed at the outdoor meetings, or on the
occasion of any other country excursion they may take independently
of the Club, a great deal of interesting material might by that means
be gathered, and I feel confident many birds, of whose existence in
Mid-Lothian we are unaware, could be added to the list of local fauna.

The only other bird now to be mentioned is the Grasshopper-
Warbler, whose visits to Scotland, like those of angels, are " few and
far between " ; but within the last few years several instances of its
occurrence have been recorded from time to time. As might be
inferred, its name is derived from the song, which is said to resemble
in a measure the chirping of a Grasshopper.

In conclusion, let us hope that, with the growing taste for Natural
History which is undoubtedly extending more widely every year
among all classes, our Field Club will not be behind-hand, but show

150 Transactions of tJie [Sess.

an increased interest in the study of Ornithology, amidst whose
nnmerons families there are few more deserving of notice, or more
calculated to repay any little trouble expended upon them, than the
SylviidaB, or Warblers.

At this meeting Mr D. Percy Aitken read a short note on the use
of carbonised paper in taking leaf- impressions, called forth by Mr
Turnbull's communication to the December meeting on the same
subject. Mr Aitken also exhibited a small roller-machine which had
been used in taking similar impressions.

VIL—ON TEE STRUCTURE AND POLLINATION OF THE
FLOWER OF GALATHEA ZEBRINA.

By J. M. MACFARLANE, D.Sc.

{Feb. 28, 1884.)

Dr J. M. Macpablanb gave a short account of the structure and
mode of pollination of the flower of Calathea zebrina, Meyer, as
observed from specimens in the Eoyal Botanic Garden, and which
agreed with the previous accounts given by Hildebrand and E'ichol-
son. He showed that in addition to the petals, certain of the
stamens assumed a petaloid character, one in particular being rounded
and pouch-like at its free extremity. Against the pouch-like extrem-
ity the end of the style strongly pressed — the under surface of the
latter, near the anterior end, having a saddle-shaped depression, which
received the pollen from the single anther-lobe before flowering ;
while the stigma constituted the tip of the style. On an insect
visiting the flower, he showed that the style, when delicately touched,
coiled up with great force, causing first the stigma and next the
pollen to be driven against the insect's body, so that the stigma first
received pollen brought by the insect from another flower, and new
pollen was next deposited on its body. After coiling up, the style
rapidly lost its purple-white colour, and assumed a rich brown hue,
so that flowers already visited by insects were at once recognised by
those succeeding.

1883-84] Edinburgh NatJiralists Field Club. 151

VIII.—NOTE ON THE MOUNTING OF MICROSGOPIQ OBJECTS
IN MONOBROMIDE OF NAPHTHALINE.

By W. IVISOX MACADAM, F.C.S., F.I.C.

(Read Feb. 28, 1884.)

I HAVE thought it might be of interest to the members of the Club if
I gave a few notes on the method of mounting objects for the micro-
scope in the new medium, Monobromide of jS'aphthaline. The index
of refraction of this medium is so different from that of the ordinary
Balsam, that the striation of Diatoms is brought out Avith a clear-
ness never before obtained. Weissflog of Dresden, who has employed
the medium for over three years, says that in mounting Diatoms he
uses only a thick solution of shell-lac, and never wax or gold-size.
After making the ring with the shell-lac, a drop of the medium is
placed with the Diatoms on the cover, and put in position on the
ring. After removing extra liquid with blotting-paper, the edges are
coated with thick gum-arabic, and allowed to dry. When quite dry,
it should then receive one or two coatings of sealing-Avax dissolved
in alcohol, and lastly a coat of pure shell-lac. Common glue will be
found good for the cell, and the last coat may be one of water-glass.

The substance is by no means an easy one to work with, and
failures may be expected during the early trials. However, the
result, as may be obseived from the slides shown, is well worth the
trouble and pains necessary. When successfully conducted, the slides
remain perfect for a long period, the great point being the careful
coating of the edges with the gum-arabic. The Eev. George Davidson
of Logie-Coldstone has had slides for over five years, and they are as
perfect now as when first obtained. The slides shown, both in balsam
and in the new medium, are mounted by that gentleman.

IX.— THE STRUCTURE AND HABITS OF CARNIVOROUS

PLANTS.

By Mr A. D. RICHARDSON.

{Bead Feb. 28, 1884.)

To sustain plants in a healthy condition, a supply of nitrogen is
essential. Although that element forms nearly four-fifths of the air
we breathe, plants have no power of taking it in from the atmosphere

VOL. I. L

152 Transactions of tJie [Sess.

in a free or uncombined state. The source from which they derive
their supply is the nitrates and salts of ammonia contained in the soil
in which they grow, and the medium through which it is conveyed
into the substance of the plant is the root. In some plants, however
(the so-called Insectivorous or Carnivorous plants), the roots are so
feebly developed that they are quite inadequate to fulfil all the
functions which they perform in ordinary cases ; and in these plants
all or part of the leaves are modified for the purpose of capturing
insects and other small animals, from the absorption of which they
are able to supplement their otherwise defective nitrogenous supply.

Carnivorous plants are of two kinds, — viz., 1st, those in which
there is a true digestive process ; and, 2d, those in which there is
merely decomposition and absorption of the liquid products. To the
first group belong Drosera, Dionsea, Pinguicula, ISTepenthes, and
Cephalotus ; and to the second, Sarracenia, Darlingtonia, and Utri-
cularia.-*- We shall consider several members of these two groups,
taking up in order, in the first, Drosera and Dionaea [Droseraceoe),
Pinguicula (LejitibuliariaeecB), and ^Nepenthes {Nepentliaceoe) ; and
in the second, Sarracenia (Sarrace7iiacece) and Utricularia [Lenti-
huUariacece).

Drosera.

This genus is distributed over the temperate parts of nearly the
whole world, the plants generally inhabiting marshy or boggy grouiid.
In Drosera rotuudifolia, the plant consists of a spreading rosette of
radical leaves, from the centre of Avliich one or more fiower-stalks
spring. Each leaf consists of a round leaf-blade supported on a leaf-
stalk, and the upper surface of the blade is beset with numerous
hair-like structures, with glandular knobs, to which Mr Darwin has
applied the term "tentacles." Each tentacle consists of a stalk, at
the extremity of which is a glandular knob surrounded by an ex-
tremely viscid fluid secretion, which, from its glittering in the sun,
has given the plant the poetical name of " Sundew." In the centre
of the leaf-blade the tentacles are short and erect, but towards the
margin they get longer and more inclined outwards. A fibro-vascular
bundle, consisting of a spiral vessel with some simpler tissues, runs
in the interior of the stalk of each tentacle, these elements being
continuations of the fibro-vascular system of the leaf. The glands
consist of two outer layers of small cells, which are filled with purple
granular matter or fluid ; and in the centre are a number of elongated
cylindrical spiral cells, which seem to be connected with the spiral
vessel of the stalk.

Fully more than a century ago, the discovery was made by two

1 There are a few other genera in both groups, but most of them are not as
yet in cultivation. These are, in the first group, Drosophyllum, Byblis, and
Eoridula ; and in the second, Aldrovanda and Heliamphora,

1883-84] EdinburgJi. Naturalists' Field Club. 153

persons, the one a German (Eotli, 1779) and the other an English-
man (Whately, 1780), that the tentacles Avere sensitive, and that
insects were imprisoned by the leaves. These observations were
confirmed by another German observer (Nitschke) in 1860; by an.
American lady (Mrs Treat) in 1871 ; and the subject has been care-
fully worked out in this country by Mr Darwin and others. If a
small object be placed on the short tentacles in the centre of the leaf,
a motor impulse is conveyed to the surrounding ones, Avhich become
inflected over it, those nearest the centre becoming first bent, and
then those further off, until the whole of them are closely in-
flected over the object. The tentacles in the centre of the leaf do
not bend in this case, but remain in their original erect position.
Should the object be placed on the glands aAvay from the centre of
the leaf, however, the short tentacles of the centre become bent
towards the point of excitement, through a motor impulse being
conveyed to them from the excited glands. When a very minute
particle of meat is placed on one of the long exterior tentacles, it
bends towards the centre of the leaf, Avhile those surrounding: it
retain their original position. If the object be not too minute, and
especially if it contains soluble nitrogenous material, immediately it
comes in contact with the glands of the central tentacles a motor
impulse is transmitted to the surrounding tentacles, which all' bend
toAvards the centre.

It is astonishing how minute an object Avill cause the tentacles to
bend. DarAvin found that a bit of blotting-paper Aveighing j^-g- of a
grain, placed in contact Avith three glands, caused them to curve
slowly iuAvards. A bit of cotton-thread -gV of an inch in length, and
Aveighing siVt of a grain, Avas next placed on a tentacle, and Avas
carried to the centre in 1 h. 40 m. Tavo particles of the thinner
end of a human hair, one being -^^-^ of an inch in length, and
Aveighing s-g-.Trr of a grain, the other y^^o of an inch in length,
and Aveighing a little more, Avere placed on glands on opposite sides
of the same leaf, and these tAvo tentacles Avere inflected half-way
toAvards the centre of the leaf in 1 h. 10 m., all the other tentacles
round the same leaf remaining motionless. The smallest particle
which AA'as tried, and Avhich caused the tentacle to bend, Avas only
ytkto of an inch in length, and Aveighed ts.tto of a grain.

DarAvin's surprise Avas greatly excited not only by the minuteness
of the objects Avhich caused inflection, but as to how they could
possibly act on the glands ; for he found that small drops of AA^ater
many times heavier than the particles which Avere placed on them,
although repeatedly added, produced no eflect. I^either did the
disturbance of the secretion produce azay effect ; for long threads
were drawn out by a needle and affixed to some adjoining object,
and thus left for hours, but the tentacles remained motionless. If
repeatedly touched or brushed, however, although no object Avas left

154 Transactions of the [Sess.

upon tliem, the marginal glands curved inwards. It would appear,
from what Darwin has been able to make out, that an object must
come in contact not only with the secretion surrounding the gland,
. but with the gland itself ; and this is brought about by the object
absorbing the secretion, and thus sinking through it to the surface of
the gland. Particles which merely rest on the secretion, and do not
come into actual contact with the gdand, never produce any effect ;
and the same may be said of one or more contacts with any hard
substance. Excessively small closes of certain organic fluids and
saline solutions cause strongly marked inflection. DarAvin found that
the phosphate of ammonia was by far the most powerful in causing
this. When a leaf was immersed in thirty minims of a solution of
one part by weight of the salt to 21,875,000 parts of water, the
absorption of the twenty-millionth of a grain by a gland was suffi-
cient to cause the tentacle bearing it to curve to the centre of the
leaf. The amount of heat which the leaves will stand without being
injured is also remarkable. Darwin found that when they were
immersed in water at a temperature of betAveen 115° and 125° Fahr.
they were quickly inflected, and the protoplasm became aggregated ;
but Avhen afterwards placed in cold water, they slowly expanded.
When exposed to a temperature of 130°, inflection did not imme-
diately take place ; but when afterwards placed in cold water, they
often became inflected, and then re-expanded. When placed in cold
water after exposure to a temperature of 145°, they sometimes be-
came slightly though slowly inflected ; but when placed in water at a
temperature of 150° for a short time, they Avere killed.

The secretion surrounding the glands is extremely viscid, so that
an insect alighting on the leaf is immediately entangled amongst the
glands, which, on becoming excited, transmit a motor impulse to all
the surrounding tentacles, which immediately bend over and soon
kill it. The time during which the tentacles remain inflected depends
on the age and vigour of the leaf, and Darwin mentions that they so
remain for a much longer time over soluble nitrogenous substances
than over those which yield no such matter. The time varies from
one to seven clays, and he states that he has seen the glands of the
same leaf inflected three successive times over insects placed on the
disc. The leaves are more quickly inflected over animal substances,
and they remain so for a longer time during very Avarm Aveather than
during cold weather. A living insect is more efficient in causing
inflection than a dead one, as it struggles and presses against the
glands of many tentacles ; and an insect such as a fly, with thin
integuments, is more efficient in causing prolonged inflection than a
beetle with a thick coat.

When an organic or inorganic object is placed on certain glands of
a leaf, the secretion from the other glands is increased in quantity,
and becomes acid, and this takes place before they come in contact

1883-84] Edinburgh Natiii'alists' Field Clitb. 155

with the object. At the same time, a remarkable movement of the
protoplasm takes place, first Avithin the cells of the glands and then
within those of the pedicels. This movement Darwin calls " aggrega-
tion." When this takes place the cells present a difierent appearance.
Instead of being filled with a homogeneous purple fluid, they now
contain variously shaped masses of purple matter suspended in a
colourless or almost colourless fluid. The secretion appears to possess,
like the gastric juice of the higher animals, some antiseptic power.
During warm weather Darwin placed two ecpial-sized bits of raw
meat, one on a leaf and tlie other on wet moss. After fort^'^-eight
hours, that on the moss swarmed with infusoria, while that on the
leaf was quite free from them. Small cubes of albumen placed in
similar circumstances showed that those placed on the moss became
threaded with mould, while those on the leaves remained clear, and
were changed into a transparent jellj'.

Although the leaves appear at a glance to be of a reddish colour,
they nevertheless contain chlorophyll in their petioles, both surfaces
of the blade, and the pedicels of the tentacles, so that they are able
to decompose the carbonic acid of the air ; but owing to their feeble
root-development, the plants would not be able to obtain a sufficient
supply of nitrogen if they had not the power of obtaining that
important element from captured insects. Many plants entrap insects
without apparently deriving any benefit — e. g., the sticky buds of
Horse-chestnut and the leaves of Saxifraga tridactylites ; but Francis
Darwin has proved beyond doubt that Drosera derives benefit from
the insects which it captures. He grew two lots of plants under
similar conditions : one lot he fed with nitrogenous substances, while
from the other all such material was carefully excluded. The number
of seeds produced by the fed plants was as 240 to 100 of the unfed
ones; Avhile the Aveight was as 380 to 100. The number and Aveight
of the flower-stalks and seed-capsules Avere also in favour of the
fed plants.

DiON/BA.

Dion»a muscipula is confined to the eastern part of North Carolina,
where it inhabits damp situations. From the rapidity with Avhich it
closes its leaves, it has received the name of " Venus's Fly-trap."
The leaf-blade is bilobed, and the petiole is foliaceous. The lobes of
the blade stand at rather less than a right angle to each other, and
the edges are set round Avith bristle-like projections, Avhich interlace
like the teeth of a rat-trap Avhen the leaf closes. The upper surface
of each lobe, toAvards the midrib, is thickly covered Avith minute red
glands, Avhich give it a rosy appearance, and the lobe also bears three
erect sensitive filaments arranged in a triangular manner. The fila-
ments are further provided Avith a joint or hinge near the base, so
that Avhen the leaf closes they fold doAvn, and thus escape injury.

156 Transactions of the [Sess.

In 1768 an English naturalist named Ellis sent a drawing of
this plant to Linnaeus, along with a description of it, in which he
suggested that Nature might have a view to furnishing the plant vidth
nourishment in forming the upper joint of its leaf hke a machine for
catching food. He went on to state that minute red glands dis-
charged a sweet liquor, which acted as a lure to insects, which, the
moment they touched them with their feet, caused the leaf to close
instantly and squeeze them to death ; and that if the insects were
strong, three erect spines fixed amongst the glands effectively put an
end to their struggles. The movement described by Ellis is substan-
tially correct, but he made an error in stating that the glands were
sensitive, and that the erect spines played an important part in put-
ting an insect to death. His description, however, failed to convince
Linnaeus that there was anything more in it than a case of extreme
sensitiveness. That the sensitiveness resided in the hairs was dis-
covered first by an English botanical draughtsman named Edwards,
and subsequently by Dr Curtis, who published an account of it in
the 'Boston Journal of I^atural History' in 1834; and in the same
account Dr Curtis states that the secretion is not a lure, but a true
digestive fluid poured out after capture. The hairs are sensitive over
their whole surface, so that an insect alighting on the leaf is almost
certain to cause it to close. When touched, a motor impulse is con-
veyed from the excited hair through the cellular tissue of the leaf-
blade to the midrib, the result being that the lobes instantly close.
This closing, however, is not at first perfect, the teeth only slightly
interlacing, so that if the insect be small it is allowed to escape ; but
if the insect is large, the glands are induced to secrete and absorb
the animal matter, which, according to Darwin, has the eff'ect of
causing the lobes to press closely against the body of the insect. The
pressure is often so great that the outline of the body of the insect
can be seen on the outside of the leaf. These hairs are extremely
sensitive to a momentary touch. Darwin found that a piece of
human hair 2\ inches long, held dangling over one of them so as
to touch it, produced no movement, but a rather thick cotton thread
of the same length caused the lobes to close. It would appear, how-
ever, that although these hairs are more sensitive to a momentary
touch, they are far less sensitive to prolonged pressure than the ten-
tacles of Drosera. A piece of human hair ten times the length of
that which caused the tentacles of Drosera to bend, when cautiously
placed on one of the hairs produced no movement, although in the
case of Drosera they were supported by the dense secretion.

When the lobes are induced to close by mechanically touching the
sensitive hairs, they remain closed only a short time ; but when an
insect is caught, they remain closed for many days, and Darwin
mentions a case where the leaf remained closed for thirty-five days
over a large Tipula. On an insect or other animal substance being

1883-84.] EdinburgJi Naticralists' Field Club. 157

thus entrapped by a leaf, the peptic glands on the upper surface of
the lobes pour out an acid secretion immediately the animal matter
comes in contact with them. Moist nitrogenous substances, when
placed on the glands of a leaf, even although the sensitive hairs are
not touched, not only cause the glands to secrete, but the lobes slowly
close.

PiNGUICULA.

The species of this genus are distributed principally over the north-
temperate regions, and are mostly inhabitants of moist mountainous
places. In P. vulgaris (Common Butterwort, — so called from its
power of coagulating milk) the leaves are oblong, sessile, of a pale-
green colour, and form a spreading rosette, from the centre of which
the flower-stalks spring. Their margins are slightly incurved, and
their upper surfaces are thickly beset with stalked and sessile glands :
these secrete a viscid, colourless fluid, which can be drawn out into
long threads. When the glands are excited by the pressure of an
object, the margins curve inwards ; but drops of water, or mere irrita-
tion of the surface without continuous pressure, produce no move-
ment. Darwin found that the pressure of fragments of glass produced
incurvation as soon as nitrogenous matter, but in a less degree. A
motor impulse does not appear to be conveyed to the other glands
when any individual one is irritated ; for although the excited gland
may secrete copiously, the others remain passive. Darwin found that
although fragments of glass produced incurvation, they caused little
or no secretion ; but when a solution of carbonate of ammonia was
applied, there was increase of the secretion, but no movement. It
would thus appear that the secretion and movement take place
independently of each other. The shortest time in which Darwin
observed plainly marked incurvation was 2 h. 17 m. ; and the long-
est time during which a leaf remained incurved was less than 48 h.
In the majority of cases they had re-expanded in 24 h. The use
of this incurvation is apparent, as insects are washed into the incurved
margins by rain, and are thus, by the rolling in of the margins upon
them, brought into contact with a greater number of glands, which
are thus induced to secrete more freely. When Darwin placed large
pieces of meat on the leaves, he observed that they were not em-
braced, but were pushed in by the incurving margins towards the
centre of the leaf, in some cases as much as xV of f^n inch. The use
of this pushing he conjectured was to bring large insects into contact
with as many glands as possible. The incurving of the margins also
serves another purpose. When many glands are induced to secrete,
the secretion trickles down and is caught in the incurved margins, so
that insects are more quickly and completely dissolved there than on
any other part of the leaf. Insoluble substances, such as bits of glass,
have little or no power of causing secretion from the glands ; but

158 Transactions of the [Sess.

non-nitrogenous fluids cause them to secrete freely. The secretion in
this case, however, is not acid. jSTitrogenous substances, on the other
hand, cause an increased flow of the secretion, which is invariably-
acid, and in this state it has the power of digesting insects or other
animal matter. Before absorption of animal matter, the glands are
green ; but after that takes place, the protoplasm contained in them
becomes aggregated, and of a brown colour.

ISTepenthes.

The species belonging to this genus are upwards of thirty in num-
ber, and are, with a few exceptions, natives of swamps in the hotter
parts of the Asiatic archipelago. They are half-shrubby plants, and
climb by the aid of their leaves, which have the power of coiling or
twisting themselves round supporting objects. The leaves are meta-
morphosed as flattened expansions, which narrow into long tendril-
like bodies, at the extremities of which the pitchers are developed.
These pitchers are often highly coloured, and generally contain a fluid,
into which insects, and sometimes even small quadrupeds or birds,
find their way. The pitchers vary in size from an inch or two to
nearly a foot in length, and one species at least has them no less than
eighteen inches long.

The minute structure of the interior of the pitcher is of a very
complicated nature. It presents three distinct surfaces. The first is
the " attractive " surface, which occupies the inside of the lid and the
mouth of the pitcher. The inside of the lid is in most species stud-
ded over with honey-secreting glands. These consist of masses of
cells embedded in depressions of the cellular tissue of the lid, and
each is surrounded by a ring of guard-cells. Round the mouth of the
pitcher is a corrugated rim, which projects into the cavity, and which
helps to keep the mouth distended, and the corrugations are often
prolonged as sharp downward-directed teeth. Hooker observed that
the rim secreted honey; and it has been discovered recently by Pro-
fessor Dickson that a circlet of glands is present in it. These glands
alternate with the corrugations of the rim, and open into the pitcher
a little above its lower edge. They are of enormous length (in some
cases yg" of ^"^ inch) compared with the other glands found in the
pitcher, but are comparatively narrow. They are embedded in the
tissue of the rim, and open into the pitcher cavity by short canals.
Next comes the " conductive " surface, which occupies a variable
portion of the upper part of the ulterior of the pitcher. This surface
is composed of smooth glassy cells, which aff'ord no foothold to insects,
and it is generally studded over with minute reniform or crescentic
ledges. The remainder of the interior of the pitcher is occupied by
the " secretive " surface. This is thickly covered with glands resem-
bling those of the lid, but the depressions in which they are lodged

1883-84.] Edinburgh Naturalists' Field Club. 159

have their concavities directed downwards, resembling much in ap-
pearance inverted waistcoat -pockets. Hooker mentions that in IS".
Rafflesiana 3000 of these gkands occur in a square inch. A iiuid is
formed at the bottom of the pitcher which is secreted by these glands,
and is present before the lid of the pitcher opens.

Insects are induced to visit the pitcher for the sake of the honey-
secreted by the lid and the corrugated rim, and in doing so they are
apt either to fall iiito the pitcher or to be led on to the conductive
surface, down which they glide till they reach the fluid secretion, by
which they are effectually " detained." Hooker states that the fluid
is invariably present, and that when emptied out of a pitcher which
has not received animal matter, it collects again in small quantities,
the formation going on for days, and even to some extent after the
pitcher has been removed from the plant. He did not find that
inorganic substances produced an increased flow of the secretion ; but
when animal substances were placed in the fluid, there was a marked
increase. The fluid is always acid, even before the opening of the
pitcher, and it seems to have the same digestive properties as Drosera,
Dionrea, and Pinguicula. It would appear, however, that the diges-
tive power of the fluid is not due entirely to the fluid first secreted
by the pitcher, but that a substance resembling pepsine in its action
is given off from its inner wall, chiefly after the placing of animal
matter in the fluid. In support of this idea. Hooker states that very
little action took place on any of the substances placed in the fluid
drawn from pitchers and deposited in a glass tube, although the dis-
integration of the substances was three times more rapid in the fluid
than in distilled water. On the other hand, substances placed in the
fluid in the living pitchers were acted on in a very rapid manner.
Cubes of boiled egg had their edges dissolved in 24 hours, and their
surfaces gelatinisecl. Fragments of fibrine weighing several grains were
dissolved, and totally disappeared in two or three days ; while lumps
of cartilage weighing 8 to 10 grains were greatly diminished, and re-
duced to a transparent jelly in three days.

Sarracenia.

This genus consists of eight species, all of Avhich are natives of the
eastern States of North America, Avhere they are found groAving in
marshes. The leaves are funnel-shaped, and spring from the ground
in tufts. The plants send up long slender stalks in the flowering
season, each of which bears a solitary flower of a remarkable appear-
ance, due to the termination of the style in an umbrella-like expan-
sion, which caused the first English settlers to give it the name of
"Side-saddle flower." There are two distinct forms of pitcher.
Into one form rain enters easily ; into the other, with difficulty. In
the first form, of which S. purpurea may be taken as the type, the

i6o Transactions of tJie [Sess.

lid is either erect, or thrown back so as to direct all the rain that
falls upon it into the pitcher ; and in the second, of which S. variolaris
may be taken as the type, the lid is thrown somewhat forward, so as
to prevent the rain from entering. The pitchers generally contain
water, and it was supposed by Catesby that these receptacles served
as a secure retreat for insects from Frogs and other animals which feed
upon them ; and by Linnaeus and others, that they served as water-
reservoirs for birds and other animals, especially in dry weather.
This idea probably originated from the fact that some birds slit open
the pitchers with their beaks ; but the probability is that these birds
slit open the pitchers to get at the larvae of insects which have
dropped their eggs amongst the mass of decaying organic matter, where
they would get suitable nourishment.

It was Linnaeus who first made the suggestion, which has since
been worked out in detail by Baillon, that the pitchers of Sarracenia
are analogous to the leaves of Water-lilies; and he supposed that
they were originally aquatic in their habits, and had Nymphaea-like
leaves, but that they afterwards took to terrestrial habits, and their
leaves became hollowed out to contain the water in which they could
not float. The pitcher-lid would thus represent the apex of the leaf.
The internal structure of the pitchers is exceedingly beautiful, and in
most species presents, like ]N"epenthes, three distinct surfaces. The
first is the " attractive " surface, which occupies the inner part of the
lid and the mouth of the pitcher. The lid is often more highly
coloured than the rest of the pitcher, and, in common with the mouth,
is studded over with honey-secreting glands. These glands are also
found on the outside of the pitcher. The epidermis cells of the inner
surface of the lid are wavy in outline, and many of them are pro-
longed on their free surface into sharp downward-directed hairs.
Occupying the upper part of the inner surface of the pitcher proper,
and extending some distance down its cavity, is the " conducting "
surface. In this each epidermis cell is prolonged downwards into a
short, glassy, sharp-pointed hair, which is finely striated. These hairs
overlap like the tiles of a house, and they thus aff"ord no foothold to
insects. The whole of the cavity of the pitcher below the conduct-
ing surface is occupied by the " detentive " surface. In this many
of the epidermis cells are prolonged into enormously elongated down-
Avard-directed hairs, which increase in length towards the bottom of
the pitcher ; and as the cavity diminishes in width, they meet in the
centre, and thus completely prevent the escape of any insect which
may have been lured into it. Secreting glands are embedded in the
detentive surface of all the species with the exception of S. purpurea.
In this species, however, there is a special glandular surface which oc-
cupies a portion of the wall of the pitcher between the conducting and
detentive surfaces. The epidermis cells of this surface are wavy in
outline, and embedded amongst them are numerous secreting glands.

1883-84.] Edinburgh Naturalists' Field Club. 161

Insects are induced to visit the honey secretion of the lid and
mouth of the pitcher, and are thus led on to the conducting surface.
This affords no foothold, and they glide down till they reach the
detentive surface. When once amongst the hairs of this part of the
pitcher, there is no possibility of returning, their struggles only
serving to wedge them deeper and more hrmly. The secretion
" wets " an insect much more rapidly than water : but it apparently
has no digestive properties, appearing rather to hasten decomposition.
The broad whig of the pitcher is also said to be baited with honey,
so as to lure insects to their destruction by presenting a pathway
from the ground.

Utricularia.

The British species of this genus are all aquatic, but some exotic
species are terrestrial. The aquatic plants are entirely destitute of
roots, and the submerged stem and branches are clothed with leaves,
which are dissected up into slender filiform segments ; and on these
segments numerous little bladders or ampullaB are developed. The
leaves are tipped Avith short straight bristles. The plants float near
the surface of the water, above which they send their flowers sup-
ported on slender stalks.

In U. vulgaris the bladders are supported on short footstalks, and
are about xV of an inch in length. They are generally filled with
water, but sometimes they contain air-lnibbles. At the apex is a
small orifice, around which are a numl:)er of hair-like prolongations
called antennae. On the inside of this orifice is a small hemispherical
valve, which shuts against the rim or collar of the orifice. The
valve is elastic, and can lie pushed back Ity a small insect, which
thus easily finds admission to the inside of the bladder. When once
in, there is no chance of its getting out, for the valve springs l^ack
against the collar and completely closes the entrance. All over the
interior of the bladder small processes called " quadrifids " are placed.
These consist of very short stalks, which spring from angular cells at
the junctions of the angles of the larger cells ; and at their apices four
arm-like processes are developed, each of Avhich consists of a single
cell. In U. vulgaris two of these arms are long and two short, but
in U. montana they are all nearly of the same length. The bladders
were supposed by some to act as floats ; l)ut as they seldom contain
air, it is probable that the plants are floated up l^y the air contained
in the intercellular spaces. The real use of the bladder is to capture
small insects, which they do in great numbers. As already men-
tioned, they enter the bladder by pushing back the valve ; and the
free edge of this is so thin, and shuts so closely against the collar,
that a Daphnia which Darwin mentions as having inserted one of its
antenna3 into the slit was held fast for a whole day. The insects
captured are all small water-insects, such as Cyclops, &c. \ and, as in

1 62 Transactions of the [Sess.

Sarracenia, they are not digested, but simply undergo decomposition.
The quadrifid hairs are supposed to be the active agents in the
absorption of the liquid products.

Such is a short survey of a few of these most interesting plants.
While their general structure includes them in the Vegetable Kmg-
dom, their habits, in some respects, are curiously allied to those of
the members of the Animal Kuigdom. It is only of recent years
that these habits have been investigated and understood, principally
through the laborious and painstaking experiments of Darwin, Hooker,
and others, in this country. IN'ow that attention has so largely been
drawn to ' them, and so many workers have entered on the task of
their further elucidation, even more startling facts than any yet dis-
covered may some day be brought to light.

[In illustration of the above, a number of microscopic preparations were
shown, which included the minute structure of most of the plants enumerated
and described.]

X.—NOTE ON THE NEST OF THE REED-WARBLER
(SALIC ARIA ARUNDINAGEA).

By Mr A. B. HERBERT, Pkesident.
{Read Feb. 28, 1884.)

The Eeed- Warbler is extremely rare in Scotland, and not so abundant
in England as the Sedge- Warbler. It is a migratory species, coming
in April and leaving in September. Its note is pleasing and varied,
and uttered with little intermission during the day, and occasionally
at night. The nest is a most peculiar structure, very ingeniously
suspended from three reeds, and so deep that when the reeds wave
about in the wind, there is no danger of the eggs rolling out. The
one I exhibit was given to me by Mr Miller, the agent for the Earl
of Craven at Combe Abbey, in Warwickshire — a place which is a
perfect paradise for aJl small birds. In the year 1882 there were
three of these nests in the same cluster of reeds near the decoy,
where no gun is allowed to be fired, and even loud talking is strictly
prohibited, so that the little Eeed- Warblers live in perfect peace, and
have a kind friend in Mr Miller, who is an enthusiastic ornithologist.
Excepting the mud-nests of the Hir undines, I know of only two
species of British birds which build suspended nests, namely, this one
and the Gold-crest. On examining the nest before us, we cannot

1883-84.] Edinhirgh Naturalists' Field Club. 16

J

fail to he struck with the clever manner in which the fine fihres are
interlaced round the reeds. I have often thought how extremely
difficult it must be for the small bird to form the commencement of
such a nest, Avhile every breath of wind must alter the relative posi-
tion of the reeds. At Combe there is a large Heronry on an island
in the lake, and the bird-life is always interesting to me on the occa-
sion of my annual rambles there.

XL— SOME AMERICAN PLANTS TFORTH NOTICE.
By Mr MARK KING.

{Bead March 27, 1884.)

The plants of JSTorth America are both numerous and varied in
character. They are found on the prairie and the mountain, on the
river - bank and the lake - margin, in the wood and the cultivated
field. The region embraced in the following brief notes is confined
for the most part to the State of Ohio, which contains an area of
more than 39,000 square miles, and includes within its range a great
variety of soil, climate, and situation. Even in the comparatively
limited extent of this one State, it will be evident that the flora must
be very abundant, and all that can be done in the short time at our
disposal is to select a few plants which are noteworthy either on
account of their beauty or utility, showing herbarium specimens of
these, and adding a few comments on them. The plants chosen for
this purpose are included in the following eleven natural orders,
viz. : —

1. Eanunculacese. — The plants comprised in this large order are
mostly natives of cool, damp climates, those of the tropical regions
growing only at high elevations. JN'early all the genera possess acrid
and narcotic properties, while some of them are highly poisonous.
The order is rich in ornamental cultivated plants. The Clematis or
Virgin's Bower is a large genus in the American flora, containing no
less than fifteen species. It is a plant well known to all in the
cultivated form. The twigs are capable of being made into baskets ;
and the leaves of certain kinds are employed as an external applica-
tion in rheumatism. A section of the wood is a very interesting
object under the microscope. Among other fine plants in the order
are the tall and showy Delphiniums ; Avhile those harbingers of spring,
the Hellebores, Hepaticas, and Anemones, are also included in it.

2. Magnoliaceae. — This is a small ordei', the IS'orth American rep-
resentatives being three genera and fourteen species, including some

164 Transactions of the [Sess.

of the most splendid of flowering trees and shrubs. Among these is
the Tulip-tree (Liriodendron tulipiferd), a remarkable tree, which in
May and June puts forth numerous campannlate flowers. It was
early dispersed throughout Britain ; and a specimen we saw in Rox-
burghshire in 1850 was twenty feet in height. It is only in the
southern part of our island that it flowers well. The bark has a
bitter aromatic taste, and has been used as a substitute for Peruvian
bark. It may be added that there are some fine specimens of the
Tnlip-tree growing in the Edinburgh Eoyal Botanic Garden, one in
especial measuring about 60 feet in height.

3. Anonacese. — Of this large order, comprising trees and shrubs,
only four species, belonging to the genus Asimina, are found within
the limits of the United States. A. triloba, which bears the Custard-
Apple, is a small but beautiful tree, fifteen to twenty feet high, found
growing on the banks of streams. The fruit is one of the most
delicious products of tropical countries.

4. Berberidacese. — This is said to be an order hard to define,
containing plants of widely different habit and of very doubtful
affinities. Five genera and six species are found in the flora of the
United States and Canada. One of the most curious and interesting
plants of America belongs to this order — namely, Podophyllum pel-
tatum, or the May-Apple. An extract from the root of this plant,
named Podophyllin, is now well known in this country as a remedy
in liver-disease. Another curious plant of the order is Jeffersonia
diphylla, or Twin-leaf, named in honour of President Jefferson. It
is known in Ohio as the " Rheumatism plant."

5. Nymphseacese. — This is an inconsiderable order, yet it has a
wide geographical range. The representative now exhibited is IN'uphar
ad vena, which has been described as " a well-looking and very curious
plant, but from its filthy habits it has been called, with justice, the
Prog-lily."

6. Tiliacese. — To this order, comprising trees and shrubs, belongs
Tilia americana, or Bass-wood, a common tree in the northern and
western States. The wood is white, soft, and clear in colour, being
much used in the panelling of carriages. The inner bark, which is
very strong and tough in texture, is manufactured into ropes. When
in flower, the trees are a favourite resort for bees.

7. Rhamnaceae. — The Buckthorn family contains 42 genera and
250 species, many of these being natives of America, though found
in all parts except the frigid zone. One genus, however, is peculiar
to l^orth America, namely, Ceanothus. The representative shown is
Ceanothus americanus, a lovely dwarf shrub, with a profusion of white
flowers. The leaves, which are very downy, with soft hairs on the un-
der-surface, have been used as a substitute for tea, giving the plant the
name of "Jersey Tea." Another cognomen is "Red-root," — the root,
which is large, and of a red hue, being used for colouring purposes.

1883-84.] Edinburgh Naturalists' Field Club. 165

8. Sapindacese. — This order, known as " Indian soapworts," is so
named from the saponaceous principle contained in the seed of some
of the species. In the order is found the genus ^sculus or Horse-
Chestnut, known in America as the Buckeye. The pkxnt selected is
-^sculus glabra, or Ohio Buckeye, — a small tree found growing along
the banks of the Ohio and its tributaries. Its flowers, which are
yellowish-Avhite, have by no means a pleasant odour.

9. Leguminosse. — This is a very large and important order, distrib-
uted nearly throughout all lands, '' from pole to pole." Of the 6500
species now known, 350 are natives of America. ISTo other order
possesses a greater claim on general attention, whether as regards
beauty or utility. In it mankind find materials for food, shelter,
ornament, and medicine. It contains such diverse products as Beans,
Peas, and Lentils ; Eose-wood, Sandal-wood, and Laburnum ; the
Acacias and splendid varieties of Cercis ; Liquorice, Senna, and Gum-
tragacanth. AVe have chosen two representatives of the order.
Cassia marilandica and Cercis canadensis. Cassia marilandica, or
American Senna, is a handsome plant, often met with in alluvial soils
in the United States, growing in masses, from three to five feet in
height. The flowers are in axillary racemes and terminal panicles,
the petals being bright yellow in colour. Tlie leaflets are in pairs,
six to nine in number : their cathartic properties are well known.
The Cercis canadensis is popularly known as the Judas Tree and the
Eed-bud. It is a very handsome tree, from twenty to thirty feet
high, the blossoms appearing in early spring before the leaves, and
clothing the whole tree in purple flowers arranged in small lateral
clusters. Gerarde remarks of it, " This is the tree whereon Judas
did hang himself, and not on the Elder-tree as it is said."

10. Rosaceae. — This order is highly prized for the delicious flowers
and fruits included in it. With the exception of the Almond family,
none of the 1000 species it contains are injurious. It embraces many
forms of plant-life, as the umbrageous tree, the trailing herb, and the
flowering shrub. The determination of the species in some of the
genera, as Rosa and Ruhus, is still an open question. The Pear and
the Apple both claim descent from the genus Pyrus, the most widely
diff'used of fruit-trees. Varieties almost without number are raised of
these delicious fruits ; and nearly a thousand kinds of Apples are
cultivated in the United States alone. We have selected two forms
of Pyrus — coronaria and arlmtifoUa. Pyrus coronaria, or the Sweet-
scented Crab-tree, is a small tree of from ten to twenty feet high.
Both flowers and fruit have an agreeable fragrance. The Apple is
yellowish, hard, and sour, but in favour for preserving, Pyrus
arbutifolia, or Choke-berry, is a small shrub, from five to eight feet
high, found growing in moist woods. The flowers are white, grow-
ing in terminal corymbs ; while the fruit is the size of a Currant, and

astringent m taste.

1 66 Transactions of the [Sess.

11. Cornaceae. — This small order, the last we will notice at present,
is distinguished for the astringent properties of the bark. The nine
genera and forty species comprised in it are found in the temperate
zones of both hemispheres. The specimen exhibited is Cornus florida,
or the Flowering Dogwood. It is a tree from twenty to thirty feet
in height. The bark is exactly similar to Peruvian bark in its pro-
perties as a tonic. " The true flowers are inconspicuous, greenish-
yellow, but the involucre is very large and shoAvy, of veiny, white,
obovate leaves, ending in a callous point, which is turned up or down
so abruptly as to appear emarginate." The wood is extremely hard,
and very dvirable.

XII.— NOTE ON THE WESTWARD MIOBATION OF THE
FLORA AND REPTILIAN FAUNA OF THE EURO-
PEAN CONTINENT, AS EVIDENCED ON THE MAIN-
LAND OF SCOTLAND, SOME OF THE SOUTHERN
HEBRIDES, AND IRELAND.

By Mr SYMINGTON GRIEVE.

{Read Ilarch 27, 1884.)

It is now generally admitted that, during the last glacial period or ice age,
there was a very general depression of the land in the northern hemi-
sphere. This depression, it is believed, was caused by the tremendous
ice-cap that covered this part of the world, the enormous weight caus-
ing a displacement of the earth's centre of gravity, and also altering
the position of sea and land by causing the sea to rise much above its
present level. On the strong grip of the ice age being relaxed, there
is supposed to have been a gradual upheaval, until Britain and the
adjoining islands were no longer insrdar, but formed part of the
European continent. Ey the time that Britain had become conti-
nental, very probably the ice had melted from the lowlands, and had
receded some distance up our mountain-sides, and the climate had
become sufficiently temperate to admit of the existence of those plants
that we now find at the summits of our highest peaks, and which we
call " arctic alpines," a few of which we still meet with at the sea-
level — the stragglers that were left behind by the migrating army of
arctic alpines on their onward march. But we must not suppose that
those stragglers fell out of the ranks from being too weak to continue
their travels : it was the circumstance that they met on our shores
with congenial conditions of climate and soil, combined with freedom

1883-84-] Edinburgh Naturalists Field Club. 167

from competition with other forms of plant life that choked off, in
most instances, the stragglers that dropped out of the ranks at inland
situations at lower levels than the arctic-alpine zone. The plants of
the alpine, sub-alpine, lowland, and littoral zones all came in succes-
sion to take possession of their new home.

It is not for us to consider at present whether this, the " first
post-glacial period of elevation," was for a long or a short time ; hut
there is good evidence that, from some cause or other, it was succeeded
by a period of great depression, when Britain and Ireland, with their
adjoining islands, became insular. This may be gleaned from an
examination of the distribution of the reptilian fauna, and on th,at
account we refer to the subject here. The arctic-alpine flora, or that
portion of it which had taken possession of the Irish hills, would,
throu2;h the submersion of the land, be brought much nearer the sea
level, and would have to compete for existence under the disadvan-
tages of an unsuitable climate with the remains of the alpine, snb-
alpine, and lowland vegetation that had found, as stray plants, a home
upon the higher ground. These might possibly be poor starved plants
that had struggled hard for existence, but luider their changed con-
ditions they would gain strength every day, soon grow vigorous, and
become strong competitors with the arctic-alpines, many of which
would be killed out. This period of depression, Avhich we may call
the " first post-glacial land depression," was succeeded by another up-
heaval, but not to the same elevations as those attained by the land
during the first post-glacial period of elevation. There appears, how-
ever, to have been once more a land attachment between Britain and
the European continent, and a further influx of flora and fauna ; but
probably some of the islands off the west of Scotland were insular at
this time, as the upheaval had not been sufficient to give them a land
attachment to the mainland. This " second post-glacial period of
elevation " was succeeded by a depression of the land to about present
levels, by which Britain became insular, and was separated from
Ireland and those other islands which had become part of the main-
land during the period of elevation.

Our " raised beaches " and " shell deposits " give us a good index
as to the depressions to which our country has been subjected ; and
the beds of peat and the remains of sunken submarine forests that
extend seawards roimd our coasts, and also from the shores of the
European continent, are clear indications that at one time the land
was more elevated than at present, and that as the trees composing
those forests grew on dry land, there has been a depression of the
land by which the forests have been si;bmerged beneath the ocean.
The shallowness of the sea that intervenes between Britain and the
Continent,-"- and again between Britain and Ireland and the adjoining

^ See " Depths of the German Ocean," — ' Climate and Time,' by Dr James
Croll, p. 479.

VOL. I. M

1 68 Transactions of the [Sess.

islands/ is some evidence in itself, for if there is admitted to have
been depressions of the land, what is there to have hindered elevations %
We have, however, the he.st evidence in our flora and fanna of a land
attachment with the Eiiroj^ean continent, for we find these to be
in the main an extension of those of Germany, and altogether dif-
ferent from those insular floras rich in endemic or peculiar types
which characterise oceanic islands. We may therefore conclude that
most of our flora and fauna came from the east or south-east across
the continent of Europe. That comparatively few of the forms of
plant or animal life reached the limit of their journey westwards, but
that they gradually decreased in numbers the farther they extended
from the areas to which they had been driven by the cold of the last
glacial period, .may be understood by some statistics of the flora of
Great Britain, Ireland, and Colonsay, compared with those of some of
the Continental countries bounding the northern portion of Western
Europe. ]\Ions. A. Decandolle, in his ' Geographic botanique,' gives
the following as the number of plants in each of the countries : —

France, whicli covers a large area with considerable elevations, , 3614
Holland, which covers a small area compared with France, and is

a country with no great elevations, . . . . .1210

Denmark, also without great elevations, ..... 1197
Scandinavia, with considerable elevations, but at the same time

havuig a rigorous climate, . . . . . . .1677

Great Britain, insular, but with considerable elevations, was said

by the late Mr H. C. Watson, the greatest authority on the

subject, to have . . . . . . ■ . . . 1425

This gives us the number of plants in England and Scotland
combined ; but we have thought it well also to try and give the
numbers for each country separate, which we think may be stated as
follows : —

England, ........... 1357

Scotland, ........... 1055

Ireland. — Mr A. G. More, of the Science and Art Museum, Dublin,
and one of the authors of Moore and More's ' Contributions
towards a Cybele Hibernica,' kindly informs us that they
believe Ireland has about . . . . . . .970

Colonsay and Oronsay. — The combined flora of those islands will
serve to show the decrease to the west of Scotland, and from
our own lists we would state it at . . . . . 360

If we glance at these statistics, Ave find that, with the exception of
Holland and Denmark, all the Continental countries we give have
a much more extensive flora than Britain. Holland and Den-
mark have no alpine or sub-alpine flora, still they have nearly as
many plants as Great Britain, which covers a much wider area, besides

^ See Chart accompanjang Paper by Prof. James Geikie, LL.D., F.R.S.,
"On Geology of Colonsay and Oronsay," — 'Transactions of Geological
Society of Glasgow,' vol. vi. p. 157.

1883-84-] Edinburgh Naturalists' Field Club. 169

having considerable elevations, and we think that the evidence
obtained from those countries only helps to bear out the belief we
have, that the further Avest we go Ave find the flora more restricted.
If we compare Scandinavia Avith Iceland, Ave find the same rule
again applies, for Decandolle gives 402 as the number of varieties in
that island, Avhich is of large extent, having great elevations, and a
less rigorous climate than Norway and Sweden, — yet the decrease is
very great. If Ave compare England Avith Ireland, there is the same
falling off in the number of varieties the further Avest we go ; and if
Ave do the same Avith the mainland of Scotland, and Colonsay and
Oronsay, it is only to obtain an illustration of the same fact, as there
is not a single plant found on Colonsay and Oronsay that is not also
found on the mainland. Take these islands, and compare them Avith
Ireland, remembering the limited area coA^ered by the former com-
pared with the latter, and we Avill lind, after making all alloAvance
for those differences, and the presence of higher elevations in Ireland,
that probably the tAvo floras represent forms of plant life in nearly
the same ratio of abundance. These statistics and remarks do not
refer to jMosses, or any of the loAver forms of vegetation.

The fauna is more diflicult to obtain information about, but Ave
have the evidence acquired by the excavations in our English bone-
caves, especially Kent's Cavern, which all point to tAvo periods Avhen
different migrations of animals into Britain took place. It is generally
supposed that the ncAver forms, which are conspicuous by the absence
of their remains in the loAver strata of the caves, but Avhich become
common in the upper strata, must have come to Britain overland by
a recent connection Avith the Continent. Those English caves haA^e
yielded abundant remains of animals, principally mammalia, but Ave
merely mention the fact in passing, as we intend only to refer to the
reptilian fauna, and, as regards that, very briefly. In his interesting
and instructive book, * Island Life,' Mr Wallace gives the folloAving
information regarding the distribution of reptilia and amphibia, Avhich
shoAvs the remarkable diminution in the number of varieties the
further Avest Ave proceed ; and the same fact is said to be observalile
as regards the mammalia, from a stvidy of their past and present
distribution : — -

Belgium, . . .22 speciesof reptiUa and amphibia.

Great Britain, . . 13 ,, ,, ,,

Ireland, , . . 4 ,, ,, ,,

The decrease from 22 to 13 and from 13 to 4 species is very great;
but that it is not singular may be understood from our own observa-
tions on Colonsay and Oronsay, for there Ave find only tAvo varieties
of reptilia — namely, the SloAV-Avorm {Anguis frafjilis) and the Green
Lizard (Zootora vivijyara), and no amphibia. It is possible that the
absence of Snakes, and such common forms of amphibia as the Toad

I/O Transactions of the [Sess.

and Frog, may indicate that they are of a later type than the two
reptilia Ave now find existing on the islands ; but more probably they
were sloAver migrants to Western Europe, and did not reach the west
of Scotland until Colonsay and Oronsay were insular. There is, we
think, some evidence of this in the fact that the common Yiper is
abundant on Jura and Islay, the nearest land to Colonsay and Oron-
say ; but if we find the Yiper on the former, why should we not find it
upon the latter % This question, we confess, is not so easily answered ;
but it appears to us that the probability is, that as these reptilia could
only reach Colonsay and Oronsay while the land connection lasted,
the moment that connection was severed by a depression of the in-
tervening land, which Avas then covered by the sea, they were com-
pletely isolated and shut off from the posterior migrations of reptilia
that either travelled Avestwards slower, and had not reached the
Avest of Scotland, or only came into Britain after Colonsay and
Oronsay, Avith the Western Isles, had become isolated at the first post-
glacial period of land depression. But Iioav are Ave to account for the
presence of the Yiper in Jura and Islay, and its absence from Colon-
say and Oronsay, at the present time, if, as we have every reason to
suppose, the first post-glacial period of land depression was a great
one, submerging the islands to at least 150 feet above the present
sea level % This is a most important and interesting question, and
we think it can only be ansAvered by supposing that from the time
of this depression Colonsay and Oronsay, from the depth of the in-
tervening sea, have continued insular, while Jura and Islay, at the
time of the second post-glacial upheaval, became once more an integral
part of the mainland of Scotland, Avhich enabled the Yiper, and
possibly other reptilia and amphibia, to have access to those islands.
If this is so — and we think there is good reason to believe it — the
flora and reptilian fauna of Colonsay and Oronsay have a peculiar in-
terest to the student.

We have been asked, Why confine your paper to the flora and
reptilian fauna, and not rather take the mammalia, to prove the
theory you advance as to the migration of animals to Colonsay and
Oronsay % and this, no doubt, is a very pertinent question. We may
answer it as regards the flora, by reminding you that, with few ex-
ceptions, there was little probability of the plants that represent the
vegetation of Colonsay and Oronsay having reached those islands
previous to their occupation by man except by a land connection,
thougli possibly a few seeds might be introduced by such agencies as
Avind and birds. Yet, speaking generally, the flora would require to
reach the islands during a period of land attachment with the main-
land of Scotland. With regard to the reasons why we should choose
the reptilia in preference to the mammalia, we must ask you to bear
in mind that most of the forms of the latter Avere able to SAvim, and
that the evidence regarding the impossibility of their not being able

1883-84-] EdinburgJi Naturalists' Field Club. 171

to reach Colonsay and Oronsay at a later time, supposing that they
had not arrived in those islands during the time of a land connection
with the mainland, would be more difficult to prove to the satisfac-
tion of most persons than that a Slow-worm or a green Lizard could
not get over the intervening stretch of ocean. The swimminff feats
of some animals are remarkable, and perhaps none more so than tlie
Red-Deer, which, though now extinct on many of the islands round
our shores, still has left a record of its presence at one time on
almost all of them, in its remains. The evidence obtained during a
series of excavations in ancient deposits on the islands of Colonsay
and Oronsay leads us to believe that, in all probability, numbers .of
the mammalia at one time found there, but now extinct on those
islands, originally reached them during a period of land attachment
with the mainland. But it would lengthen out our subject too much
to enter upon our reasons for that convictir)n.

"We must now ask you to join with us in briefly reconsidering the
probable physical changes that Western Europe has undergone since
the close of the last glacial period. In imagination, suppose yoiir-
selves standing upon an eminence that enables you to survey at one
glance the tract of land — now partly sea — that intervenes between the
west of Scotland and the western shores of the Continent, and stretch
back in thought into the immense period of time that has elapsed
since the last ice age. You will see (after the ice melted from the
littoral zone, and retired up the mountain sides, where it remained
in immense glaciers) what is now the bed of the German Ocean be-
coming dry land, and the ground taken possession of Ijy the arctic-
alpine flora, Avhich ever pressed westwards, followed rapidly, as the
climate ameliorated, by alpine, sub-alpine, and littoral plants, all in
quick succession pressing to the new home they were in search of in
the country of the setting sun. As with the plants, so with the
animals — all are rushing Avest to take possession, as soon as the con-
ditions exist that enable them to live. The climate gradually be-
comes warmer and Avarmer, each recurring season, until it is like that
which now exists in the south of Europe. This continental period
has lasted a long time, Avhen there are sudden and violent changes
that alter the position of land and sea, causing Britain and Ireland
to become insular, some of their outlying elevations becoming islands.
This submersion has the effect of droAvning out almost the Avhole of
the lowland flora, and kills many of the alpine and arctic-al])iue
plants, from a Avithdrawal of the suitable conditions for life. The
fauna lias to flee from the plains before the rising Avaters, and take
refuge on the bare mountain sides, Avhere many animals die from Avant
of food. Another long period elapses, and the plant and animal life
have got settled doAA'n into their neAv circumstances, the fittest sur-
viving ; when an upheaval takes place, and Britain and most of the
adjoining islands once more become continental, though the land

1/2 Transactions of the [Sess.

attachment is only a narrow neck that stretches across near where the
present Straits of Dover exist. Across this narrow isthmus came
another migration of plants and animals to invade Britain, and they
gradually spread westwards and northwards to habilitate and occupy
the vast tracts of loAvland country that had recently risen from the
sea, and which were only partially supplied with vegetable and animal
life from the remains of the previous migration that had taken refuge
on the hills at the time of the great submersion of the land just re-
ferred to. Some time elapses,- — the country that was submerged has
recovered from the effects of the sea, — and the hills and valleys are
clad with trees, and from a waste there has risen a paradise, when
once more there are violent convulsions of the earth — some upheavals,
but many subsidences — and the connecting isthmus with the Con-
tinent disappears beneath the waves. Britain and Ireland, with the
adjoining elevations, once more become islands, and when at last
Mother Earth settles down into quietude, the present levels and
contour have been attained by the British Isles. Some have sup-
posed this convulsion of nature to be the same as the Deluge, but we
confess we cannot throw any light upon the subject, so leave it to
our theologians, who will find it a difficult point to settle. In dis-
cussing the subject before us, we have tried to describe what are the
probable changes that have taken place in the relations of sea and
land in Western Europe since the last ice age, but we would advise
every one to avoid accepting them as definite conclusions until they
have verified the evidence for themselves. We need not try to con-
tinue this stretch of thought further, as it would be hopeless. For
though it may be profitable and instructive to look back upon the
past, — whether it be as regards the physical history and changes of a
country, or the introduction of its flora and fauna, — we cannot grope
into the darkness of the future as we have been doing into the dim-
ness of the bygone ages, so must leave it alone.

XIII.— ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE SYMBIOSIS OR

GONSOBTISM.

By Mr JOHN RATTRAY, M.A., B.Sc, F.B.S.,
Scottish Marine Station, Granton.

(Read March 27, 1884.)

Although the highest animals are readily distinguishable from the
highest plants, the two kingdoms approximate so closely in their
most lowly organised members, that no sharp line of demarcation
can be definitely laid down between the two groujos of organisms.

1883-84-] Edinburgh Naturalists' Field Club. 173

The points of distinction — to all of which there are fouiid excc^t-
tions of more or loss importance — that are generally stated arc as
follows : —

(1) Animals are endowed with loccnnotice power. This same
power, hoAvever, is found in the case of the reproductive cells of
many of oi;r lower plants, such as Ulva, Pandorina, &c., these
cells existing as zoospores or zoogonidia, which are provided with
actively motile cilia, enabling them readily and rapidly to change
their place ; and the male reproductive cells or antheridia of even
higher Vascular Cryptogams, such as Ferns and Horsetails, are
similarly provided Avith locomotive organs.

(2) Animals possess irritability. This is also exhibited by
plants, such as the well-known Sensitive Plant [Mimosa semitiva),
the leaves of which suddenly droop if subjected to mechanical,
chemical, or electrical stimuli, — vapour of chloroform, for example,
l)roducing drooping of longer continuance than a similar effect
brought about by mere mechanical irritation. The stamens, too, of
the Barberry are sensitive to mechanical stimulation. They are
jointed to the receptacle, and, when touched, move inwards towards
the centre of the flower. A reverse movement takes place in the
case of the stamens of Eock Rose [FleJiantltemum), when similarly
affected : these, in the normal, unstimulated condition, are erect, but
by gently squeezing the outside of the flower, a movement away
from the pistil occurs.

(3) Plants possess cellulose in the walls of their constituent cells.
This substance is chemically air isomer of starch (C-qH^qO^), and,
although not occurring widely in the Animal Kingdom, it seems
identical with the " tunicin " found in the tests of Ascidians ; while
the amyloid and saccharine matters which are so conspicuous vege-
table products are also " of very wide, if not universal, occurrence in
animals " (Hux.), being represented by the glycogen of the liver.
It is, however, a well-known fact that the combustion odour of
feathers, or other animal products, is markedly different from the
odour given off by burning wood, and here avo have a general dis-
tinction of importance between the two kingdoms.

(4) In plants generally there is a preponderance of the ternary
compounds of carbon, although of vegetable protoplasm nitrogen is
also an important constituent, nitrogenous food being necessary for
the full complement of seed in such insectivorous plants as Pin-
guicula, IS'epenthes, and others. Animals, on the other hand,
abound in quaternary or quinary carbon unions — the albumen, so Avell
seen in the Avhite of egg, possessing a constitution indicated, accord-
ing to some, by the formula C^^^H^^QiSr^gO^oS^ ; while hainnoglobin,
or the red colouring matter of blood, is perhaps one of the most
complex of all organic bodies, being represented, according to Preyer,
by the formula CcooHoeoNis^FeSgO,;^ ; the fact that iron (Fe) is

1/4 Transactions of tJie [Sess.

essential in the liDemoglobin of blood, as well as in the chlorophy]]
of plants, being a remarkable point of affinity between these very
important and very active organic products.

(5) Most animals possess a distinct alimentary tract, which, al-
thougli not found as a definite elongated digestive tube in vegetables,
is still represented by the pitchers of Sarracenia, Darlingtonia, and
Nepenthes. These perform all the functions of a stomach, being
specially constructed for the capture and digestion of insects, as cock-
roaches, &c. ; while the glands found in them function in the same
Avay as the gastric glands of the most highly developed mammalian
stomach, by secreting a vegetable gastric juice. Moreover, these
pitchers are epidermic involutions of leaves, just as the primitive
archenteron of an animal gastrula is in many cases an invagination of
an original epiblastic Avail of cells.

(6) All plants except the Fungi and a fcAV highly organised yet
parasitic Phanerogams, such as Lathriea, possess green colouring
matter or chlorophyll, the function of Avhich is the decomposition of
carbonic acid (CO2) in sunlight, and the fixation of carbon with
liberation of oxygen, so that organic matter, such as starch, is formed
by plant agency out of such simple inorganic bodies as carbonic
acid and Avater ; AA^hile even Fungi like Penicillium can form organic
constituents " out of ammonium tartrate, sulphate, and phosphate
dissolved in water," although these Fungi may in most cases directly
assimilate proteinaceous substances contained in the bodies of the
plants or animals Avhich they attack, — the Saprolegnia of Salmon
disease removing the rich albuminous products of its host, no less
tlian the Peronospora of Potato blight.

Animals, on the other hand, are, /or the most part, incapable of
elaborating organic compounds out of their simple inorganic com-
ponents, in virtue of an absence of chlorophyll, so that Ave have
here to deal Avith a reciprocal action between the two organic king-
doms. Yet the existence of green animals is Avell known ; and
the list of Alga-bearing animals, as given by Professor Lankester
and Dr Karl Brandt, includes organisms of very different grades —
Infusoria, Foraminifera, Padiolaria, Coelenterata, Ctenophora, Vermes,
Crustacea, Mollusca, Bryozoa, and Echinodermata. It is to be re-
marked, however, that greenness in animals need not be due to the
existence of chlorophyll as such. There AA^ould seem, indeed, to be
other green pigments developed chiefly for protection,-*^ and not of
the same physiological significance as chlorophyll, — pigments Avhich
have sometimes received special names, according to the animal in
AA'hich they have been found. Thus Ave have the Bonellein of

^ In the same way Grasshoppers (Acridiidae) tend to be protected by their
colour; and the orthopterous Phasmida;- — the " walkhig-leaf " and "stick"
insects — curiously mimic leaves and pieces of branches. Of such protective
resemblances there are many illustrations in organic nature.

1883-84-] Edlnbui'gJi Natiiyalists Field Club. 175

Bonellia viridis, the Antliea green of Anthea cereus, the Crustacea
green of Palaimon viridis, and the Pentacrinin of Pentacrinus — this
last named pigment changing from a green to a purple hue on acidi-
fication. Yet green pigment of functional value equivalent to
chlorophyll is aj)parently sometimes developed by true animal pro-
toplasm ; while, on the other hand, greenness in animals may be due
to the existence of green or greenish-yellow plant organisms existing
inside the animal tissues, in which case we have the curious phe-
nomenon of an animal and a plant agreeing to live together, and, as
we shall see below, " reciprocally accommodating " one another from
a physiological standpoint. These organisms are said to be Syjn-
biosists, Commensalists, or Mutualists.

It is at this stage to be remarked that of this association of one
organism with another we find many illustrations, differing at once
in kind and in degree. The simplest type is perhaps represented by
cases where the guest is external and the host is entirely passive.
Thus we find Diatoms epiphytic on Algse; Lichens, Alga^., or Mosses,
on trees ; Alga3 epizoic on Snails, or even on the more active Cyclops
and Daphnia ; while the list of Seaweeds found growing on other
Algte is a very large and comprehensive one, although the precise kind
of this association — whether wholly or partially epiphytic or wholly
or partially parasitic — is not in all cases clearly determined. In
addition to the fact of association of plant with plant, we find similar
associations of animal with animak Thus the Commissioners on the
Fisheries of New South Wales, in a report published in December
1883, remark that "the very young fry of Trachurus trachurus have
a most extraordinary and ingenious way of providing for their safety
and nutrition at the same time. They take up their quarters inside
the umbrella of the large MedusiB, where they are safe from their ene-
mies, and are, without any exertion on their part, supplied with the
minute organisms Avhich constitute their food, by the constant current
kept up by the action of the curtain-like cilia of the animal." In
Fol's 'Recueil Zoologiqiie Suisse,' vol. i. (1883), pp. 65-74, a similar
association of Caranx melampygus and Crambessa palmipes is re-
corded froni the Mauritius. Annelid tubes, too, have been found
surrounded by the corallum of PoritidcB and other coralline zoophytes.
On the other hand, there are associations of organisms in which both
host and guest are active and mutually lieneficial to one another, as
in the case of Anthea, Lichens, &c., to be referred to below.

The distinction between Commensalists and true parasites, such as
the Dodder, Peronospora and other Fungi, Taeniae, Trachina?,
OxyuridtC, &c. — all of which exercise a deleterious function npon
their host — was first draAvn by A"an Eeneden, Avho explained the
phenomenon of Commensalism by a " sympathy " existing between
host and guest. Eut, more recently, Mr Geddes (' Proc, Eoy. Soc.,'
Lond., 1879), by submitting a number of green Convoluta Schultzii

176 Transactions of the [Sess.

to the direct influence of sunlight, has demonstrated that oxygen gas
is evolved in large quantities (45 to 55 per cent), and that starch is
abundant in the green cells, so that the action is equivalent to that
of vegetable chlorophyll; while he has also given reasons for believing
that, in cases of consortism, we have illustrations of an ideal, complex
existence on the lines of mutual or reciprocal physiological accommo-
dation. L. Macchiati, too ('Bull. Soc. Entomol. Ital.,' 1883), has
asserted that certain Aphides (Siphonophora malvse and S. rosfe) lose
their colour when subjected to darkness, and believes that this
coloration is due to chlorophyll, although its physiological action re-
mains as yet undetermined.

It is not necessary, however, that Algae thus associated with animals
should be green. It is well known that the green colour of chloro-
phyll is often masked by other hues present in the cells, producing,
for example, such shades as the brown of Diatomaceae, or the olive
of Fuci and Laminarias, or again the red of Florideae. So we find in
marine Sponges bluish-green Oscillatorice, and in Eadiolaria certain
yelloAv bodies of ovoid outline, which Prof. Huxley first named
" yellow cells." The views that have been held regarding these
yellow cells may be summarised as follows : — -

(1) Johannes Mliller believed that they were concerned with the
reproduction of the Eadiolarians — a conception which he subsequently
abandoned.

(2) Haeckel ('Die Eadiolarien,' p. 136) maintained that they
represented the liver cells of the simple saccular liver of Amphioxus,
and were accordingly functionally secretory cells, or simple digestive
glands ; but at a later period they were found to contain starch, and
he thereupon regarded them as related to the function of nutrition of
the Eadiolarians (' Amylum in d. gelben Zellen d. Eadiolarien,' Jena,
Zeitschrift 1870, p. 582).

(3) Cienkowski, in 1871, enunciated the belief that they were
parasitic Algae, resting this view on the three considerations that their
number varies in the same species, and that after the death of the
Eadiolarian they are capable of multiplication, and of passing through
encysted and amoeboid phases.

(4) Eichard Hertwig, in 1876, maintained that the yellow cells,
being developed from the protoplasm of the Eadiolarian, acted as
storehouses of reserve food material, as the starch in a Potato tuber,
as the albumen of a seed, or as the adipose tissue of an animal does ;
but in 1879, after observing that the yellow cells were absent in some
species, and that the origin of their nuclei from Eadiolarian nuclei
was improbable, he regarded them as parasitic Algae.

(5) Huxley, in 1877 (' Anat. Invert. Anim.,' jx 90), speaking of
the same " oelleeform bodies," remarks that "the possibility that they
may be parasites must be borne in mind."

(6) Dr Karl Brandt, in 1881 (" Untersuchungen an Eadiolarien,"

1883-84-] Edinburgh Naturalists Field Club. 177

' Monats. Akad. Wiss. Berlin '), adopted the parasitic view taken up
by Cienkowski, for the following reasons : —

(«) The yellow cells survive two months after the death of the
Eadiolarian host.

ih) They agree in widely different families — e.^., in Eadiolarik
and some Actiniaj.

(c) They appear first in the outer part of the colony of Collozoum,
and gradually make their way inwards.

{d) Their nuclei stain more deeply with carmine than liadiolarian
nuclei.

(e) Their limiting membrane consists of cellulose, becoming blue
after treatment with an acid and iodine.

(/) All yellow cells have a chlorophyll-like pigment nucleus and.
a starch-like product of assimilation, that assimilation product being
of two kinds — either (a) starchy, vacuolated, colourless, or pale-blue
granules, coloured violet or blue-violet by iodine, and not doubly
refractive; or (,S), compact, irregular, reddish or violet, doubly re-
fractive granules, upon which iodine produces no change — (Brandt
in Pfluger's 'Archiv.,' 1883).

(7) Mr Geddes (' Proc. Ptoy. Soc. of Edin.,' 1881-82, pp. 382,
383) has stated, the subjoined grounds for regarding the yellow cells
of Eadiolarians as algoid in their nature : — ■

(a) They survive in dead Eadiolarians, and have encysted and
anueboid states.

(i) Their mode of division is algoid.

(c) Starch is present in them, as noted by Haeckel.

(d) Their cell walls consist of true cellulose, as made out by first
preserving the animal in alcohol, then macerating for some hours in
weak KHO, which is thereafter neutralised by weak acetic acid, and
finally treating with weak iodine and strong H.^SO^.

(e) Their yellow colour becomes green on treatment with alcohol,
and is identical with the pigment of Diatoms.

(/) There is a copious evolution of oxygen during sunshine, as
referred to below.

Brandt has named these parasitic yellow algoid-cells Zoozanthella,
and has asserted that they represent the resting-stages of various
marine Alga3, belonging chiefly to the class Melanophycefe (' Mt.
Zool. Stat. Neapel.,''l883); and again (Pfluger's 'Archiv.,' 1883),
that " if large quantities of the green cells be treated with filtered
water, they usually become zoospores provided with two cilia ante-
riorly, having their pigments arranged in parietal plates, and possess-
ing starch in their interior."

As bearing on the important physiological inferences that are to be
drawn from such cases of consortism, the experiments of Geddes on
the evolution of oxygen in sunshine are very valuable. They are as
follows : —

178

Transactions of the

[Sess.

Organism experimented on.
CoUozoum inerme .
Velella ....
Anthea cereus var. plumosa

Do. var. smaragdina

Ceriactis aurantiacus

Do.
Aiptasia chamEeleon
Helianthus troglodytes .
Actinia cari .

, , mesembryanthemum
Sagartia parasitica .
Cerianthus

Red Gorgonia verrucosa .
White Gorgonia verrucosa

Algaj.

Oxygen gas evolved.

. Present

Appreciable.

))

21 to 24 per cent.

>j

32 to 38 per cent.

a Absent

None (greenness is not algoid)

Present

Much.

. Absent

None.

Present

Much.

Absent

11
None.

))

11

11

11

11

11

)»

11

, Present

Appreciable — physiological v;

ieties.

Mr Geddes's inferences from his experiments are these : —

(1) The starch of the Algas, when dissolved, passes out into the
animal tissues by exosmosis : the animal at the same time possesses
much amylolitic ferment capable of converting starch into sugar.

(2) When the Algse die they are digested by the animal, and so act
as a food supply.

(3) When alive the Algfe remove COo and nitrogenous waste, thus
performing an intracellular renal function — the abundance of these
substances probably accelerating, at the same time, their powers of
multiplication.

(4) The AlgJB evolve oxygen, which in time accelerates the vital pro-
cesses of the animal, and so functions as stationary haemoglobin in the
blood — a substance that has also been found by Prof. Laukester sta-
tionary in the tongue muscles of MoUusca, &c. — (' Brit. Assoc.,' 1871,
p. 140.)

(5) Since free Diatoms and Seaweeds evolve from 40 to 70 per
cent of oxygen, whereas not more than 25 per cent is got from con-
sortial Algee, it follows that the animals use up part of the oxygen as
it is being formed.

(6) There is reason to believe that consortism is favourable in the
struggle for existence — inasmuch as Anthea cereus with Algae is the
most common of Sea Anemones, Avhile Eadiolaria with yellow cells
are more common than those without these structures.

(7) Consortism is important in the economy of nature, "for,
since the Eadiolarians, and doubtless also, at least to a large extent,
the Foraminifera, are thus chiefly maintauied, and since they serve
as nutriment, directly or indirectly, to most of the higher pelagic
animals, the apparently disproportionate abundance of animal life
in the open sea becomes no longer enigmatical." It is also to be
borne in mind, however, as has been pointed out by Hooker, that in
arctic and antarctic regions in particular, the Diatomaceae, which
abound in enormous numbers, afford in a large degree food-material
to the surface animals of these regions.

1883-84.] Edinburgh Naturalists Field Club. 179

Dr Karl Brandt, in 1883 ('Mt. Zool. Stat. Neapel.'), enunciated
the same physiological inferences as Mr Geddes reached, stating —
(1) that the assimilation products of living yellow cells partly serve
the animals; and (2) that possibly assimilation is more rapid when
the Alga is inside the animal, because an abundance of CO., is got
from the animal — the former of these propositions being based on
the action of iodine on Collozoum, small starch granules having been
observed in the protoplasm of that organism. These granules were
chiefly found on the outer surface of, or in close proximity to, intact
yellow cells, and they agreed witli the starch granules found in the
yellow cells. As to the action of the oxygen that is evolved by the
symbiotic Algge, as affecting the movements of the associated animals,
diverse views have been adopted by Mr Geddes and Dr Brandt. The
former believes that in sunlight this oxygen causes the animals to
move their tentacles as if they were subjected to mild stimulation —
too protracted hyper-oxygenation of Radiolarians, however, resulting
in sickness or death. Brandt (' Mt, Zool. Stat. I^eapel.,' 1883)
maintains —

(a) That Algte-bearing ActinifB, when brought from diffuse to direct
sunlight, suffer no irritation if the temperature is not alloived to rise.

(b) That Actiniai heated from 26° to 36° C. move more actively,
whether the heat be derived directly from sunlight or wdiether it be
artificial heat ; and that the same result follows whether Algaj are
present or absent.

(c) That Algte-bearing Anthozoa are killed in direct sunlight, not
by the oxygen produced, but by heat.

(d) That all Algte-bearing Actiniai throw off a number of cells
when heated to 30° or 35° C, and that the yellow cells so extrava-
sated are capable of development or assimilation.

Of the three classes of green animals, then, — namely (1), those con-
taining green pigment which is not chlorophyll, e.g., Bonellia; (2) those
containing chlorophyll in symbiotic Alga^, e.g., Anthea, Eadiolaria,
&c. ; and (3) those provided with intrinsic chlorophyll, such as
Hydra and Spongilla, — the latter class still remains shortly to be
considered. Various observers have considered the green corpuscles
of Hydra and Spongilla, and the results at which they have arrived
may be stated thus : —

(1) Professor Semper of Wurzburg ('Animal Life' — "Interna-
tional Scientific Series," p. 73) regards the occurrence of these green
bodies in animal tissues as a case " either of parasitism or of a com-
munity of two organisms so different as an animal with true tissues
and organs and a one-celled plant."

(2) Dr K. Brandt holds the same views as Semper, and bases his
belief in their algoid nature on the following considerations : —

(a) The green bodies consist of hyaline protoplasm, are provided
with a nucleus and curved chlorophyll granule, and are capable of
division. The green bodies were isolated by pressure, and their

i8o Transactions of the [Sess.

colour was found not to be of a uniform green hue, but to be
modified by the presence of hyaline protoplasm. The nucleus was
observed by use of hsematoxylin as a staining agent. On the other
hand, Professor E. Eay Lankester has found, by use of picro-carmine,
that no nucleus is determinable.

(6) The green bodies survive isolation.

(c) Though isolated, they develop starch in sunlight. With
reference to this. Professor Lankester points out that it need not
imply the existence of symbiotic Algae, as it would only prove that " a
bit of protoplasm, with its associated envelope or cap of green sub-
stance, can retain its vital activity, just as a piece of an Amoeba can ; "
and again, Dr Brandt " does not state that he observed starch grains
in association with the chlorophyll corpuscles, when observed in fresh
living cells of Spongilla (or of Hydra)." Moreover, " by removing the
chlorophyll corpuscles from the mass of surrounding protoplasm, Dr
Karl Brandt has found a method by which the jiroduct of the activity
of the chlorophyll corpuscle may be, as it were, forced to remain in the
corpuscle, there being no surrounding protoplasm to take it up and
operate further upon it. Hence, possibly enough, we get a deposit of
starch grains in the isolated corpuscle, which would never occur in
the normal condition, since the product of assimilation is in that
condition rapidly diffused, and so removed from the chlorophyll
corpuscle " — it may be, to appear as amylum in vacuoles in the ad-
joining protoplasm of the animal cell. — (^ Quart. Jour. Micr. Sci.,'
April 1882.)

(d) Specimens of green bodies from Hydra were taken in and
retained by Paramoecium, whereas the green bodies of Spongilla Avere
digested or expelled by Infusors. To this Lankester replies that,
" had Dr Brandt's view been confirmed, the green corpuscle ought to
have multiplied in its new host ; " and even then, this need not indi-
cate any independent nature : they may still be but " parts of the
protoplasm of the cell in which they are normally found."

(e) The green bodies, on the supposition of their morphological
independence, have received from Dr Brandt specific names : those
from Hydra are called Zoochlorella conductrix, and those from
Spongilla, Zoochlorella parasitica. The facts, however, which are
referred to by Professor Lankester — namely, (1) that a cellulose wall
is absent from the green corpuscles ; (2) that their form is varied ;
and (3) that their green colour may be absent when an irregular
angular corpuscle is seen — militate against their being regarded as
independent organisms.

(/) Dr Brandt, finally, has observed — (1) that Eadiolarian colonies
do not digest foreign bodies when Alga3 {i.e., yellow cells) are present,
as he succeeded in keeping them alive in filtered sea-water ; and (2)
that Spongilla containing green bodies lived in filtered water, but
died when removed into a half-darkened spot, and he therefore con-

1883-84-] EdinhirgJi Naturalists Field Cluh. 181

eludes that the life of the SpoJigilla depends ou the action of the
green bodies.

In addition to the destructive criticism given by Professor Lan-
kester of Dr K. Brandt's inferences, INIr Geddes adds —

(a) That the green bodies of Spongilla and Hydra are quite unlike
any Algse hitherto described, but closely resemble the chlorophyll
granules of plants, both in form and mode of division.

(h) That the indigestibility of chlorophyll is quite in keeping
with the retention of the green bodies of Hydra which were taken
in by Paramoecium.

(c) With reference to Brandt's sixth position, while admitting the
truth of his statements, he adds that " they constitute an extraordin-
arily slender foundation for the doctrine of ' symbiosis.' ]\Iany
Eadiolarians can be easily observed to digest foreign bodies ; every
Sponge, whatever its colour, requires great quantities of thoroughly
pure water to keep it alive ; while, of course, every one who has
worked with living Radiolarians must have felt the necessity of
transferring them, when he wished to prolong their life, from the
impure water of the ' Auftrieb,' teeming as it is with dead and dying
Crustaceans, fragments of Siphonophores, and all manner of other
impurities, to pure water."

(3) The general conclusion at which Professor Lankester arrives
is, that the green or " chlorophyll corpuscles " of Spongilla and Hydra
are equivalent to the chlorophyll bodies of plants, and that they are
no more symlnotic Algse than the "green corpuscles in the leaf of a
Buttercup." He accordingly concludes, and his conclusion is endorsed
by Mr Geddes, that true chlorophyll may be formed by animal
organisms. It is also pointed out that certain angular fragments
which are present alongside of the normal chlorophyll bodies in
Hydra, as noted by Kleinenberg and Lankester, are inexplicable on
the symbiotic theory of Semper and Brandt ; and it is further re-
marked that the angular corpuscles in pale Spongillae become green
by exposure to sunlight. The green corpuscles of Spongilla are for the
most part concavo-convex, and sometimes a very large one is found
with green colour around its outer margin : they are non-nucleated,
and are capable of division. Keller (' Zeit. f. Wiss. Zool.,' vol. xxx.)
first detected amylum vacuoles in SpongiUa cells near these corpuscles,
treatment with iodine producing a beautiful violet colour, which
disappeared after the action of KHO, although this coloured substance
remained insoluble in absolute alcohol or in water ; and it has also
been determined that osmic acid (dilute), followed by picro-carmine,
produces a red coloration, so that albuminoid material may be present.
Tills starchy solution need not be " identical with vegetable starch.
... At the same time, it cannot be denied that the probability of the
endogenous nature of the chlorophyll corpuscles, and of their non-
parasitic character, is greatly increased liy the demonstration of the

1 82 Tratisactions of the [Sess.

fact that the Sponge cell is capable of forming amyloid substance, and
depositing it in vacuoles in large quantities." It has, moreover, been
suggested that this amylum is in some way related to the formation
of winter gemmules, to which they may act as a store of food-
material, being " most abundant in specimens of Spongillaa which are
actually breaking up and dying down at the incoming of Avinter "
(Lankester, 'Quart. Jour. Micr. Sci.,' 1882). In connection with
this, the ingenious suggestion of the mechanics of sinking or floating
of Eadiolarians, given by Mr Geddes, is worth noting : " The starch
formed during the morning's exposure to sunshine would increase the
specific gravity of the Eadiolarian, and so sink it ; while its digestion
and oxidation would again lighten it," and so cause the animals to
float nearer and nearer to the surface of the water.

The analytic method adopted by Dr Geza Entz (' Biol. Centralbl./
20th Jan. 1882) for demonstrating the independent nature of some
consortial Algse is especially interesting. He has succeeded in remov-
ing green bodies from Infusors, and has traced their development to
adult algoid genera — PalmeUa, Gloeocystis, and Pleurococcus ; while he
has, conversely, observed the entrance of spores of these animals into
Infusors. About the same time. Professor Percival Wright (' JSTature,'
Feb. 1882) also recorded the entrance of Chlorochytrium and other
algoid spores into the bodies of animals, having previously (in 1877)
suggested a possible relationship to the Lichen-gonidial theory.

Finally, Dr Brandt ('Mt. Zool. Stat, ^^eapel.,' vol. iv., 1883) has
pointed out curious changes of colour observable in the case of con-
sortial Algse found at difi'erent depths. Thus yellowish-green or
yellow forms occur in surface animals like Eadiolaria, brown forms
are found in animals occurring at a slight depth, while red types
occur in Phytozoa procured from still greater depths, such as Sponges.

In dealing with the great family of Lichens, so abundantly distri-
buted over every stone and tree, we have again to face commensal
problems, although it is only in recent years that the complete rela-
tionships of the associated organisms have been fully and securely
established. Thirty-five years ago Tulasne sowed Lichen spores, and
believed that he detected gonidia forming on the fungoid hyphoB.
This same conception was originally held by De Bary in his ' Mor-
phology and Physiology of Fungi,' where he remarks that a lateral
branch of the hypha becomes shut off" by a wall, and requires chloro-
phyll, so forming a gonidium capable of subsequent subdivision ;
although in his ' Handbook of Physiological Botany ' (p. 2 9 1 ) his
views become modified. Lichens being regarded as the complete
fructifying states of plants hitherto called Algae, or as typical Algse
that become " Lichens " because of the Fungus. The original view of
Tulasne was also adopted by Berkeley (' Introd. Crypt. Bot.,' p. 273),
and folloAved by Thwaites. But the researches of Schwendener
('Ueber die Algentypen der Flechtengonidien,' 1869) first demon-

1883-84-] Edinburgh Naturalists Field Chib. 183

strated that in a Lichen a consortial association is found, — that the
Lichen is, in fact, made up of Algaj ( = gonidia) belonging to various
families (Chroococcacepe, ISTostocaceaj, Palmellaceaj), which agree to act
as hosts to ascomycetous Fungi which are never found alone, although
the AlgJE are capable of existing in a free state, and, when free, of
developing normally — that is, of forming zoogonidia or swarm cells,
as was first observed by Famintzin and Baranetsky, According to
SchAvendener, then, the Algse are merely disturbed in their mode of
life, although not destroyed, by the Fungi becoming associated with
them. At the same time, however, it is to be borne in mind, as Mr
Geddes has suggested, that while the Fungus undoubtedly must
obtain its organic food from its tolerant chlorophyll aceous host, by
exosmosis of its starch, so that host may derive subsidiary aid from
the Fungus by olrtaining endosmotically advantage from the nitro-
genous waste protoplasmic products of the hypha^ — ^just as the sym-
biotic philozoon is subsidised by similar nitrogenous waste of its con-
sortial animal organism, or as insectivorous plants like Nepenthes,
Sarracenia, or Pinguicula are benefited by the nitrogenous products of
insect digestion, or sometimes of insect decay.

This Schwendenerian doctrine of the constitution of Lichens has
been corroborated by the subsequent synthetic experiments of Bornet
("Eecherches sur les Gonidies des Lichens" — 'Ann. des Sci. Nat.,'
t. xvii., 1873), and Stahl (' Beitriige zur Entwickelungs-geschichte
der Flechten,' i., ii., 1877). The former investigator experimented
with the common brown-coloured Lichen so abundant on stones
about the upper margin of our tidal belt — namely, Parmelia parietina
— and found that when Parmelia spores were sown alone, they
ramified less and formed no chlorophyll, and that when Proto-
coccus was sown alone, it formed no hypha^ ; but Avhen the spores of
Parmelia were sown with Protococcus, a Lichen (Parmelia parietina)
was the issue. Stahl, in like manner, synthetically produced the
Lichen, Endocarpon pusillum, which bore perithecia and spermogonia.
It may be further remarked that the final shape which a Lichen as-
sumes may depend on the gonidia {i.e., the Algse), as in Ephebe, or on
the hyphic, as in Usnea — the latter being the usual type ; and that the
gonidia and hyphfe may be equally mingled, when the Lichen is said
to be "homoiomerous," or the gonidia may be confined to a single layer,
as in Sticta, in which case " heteromerous " Lichens are the result,

Mr George Murray has drawn a very interesting parallel between
certain consortial relationships found in Physophorid Coelenterates,
such as Velella, and in Lichens. In the former, Algte occur in the
gonophores or reproductive bells, which have been found to be cap-
able of surviving longer — that is, of succeeding better in the struggle
for existence — than gonophores devoid of Algce. So hymenial
gonidia — that is, gonidia found in the reproductive cups of such
Lichens as Dermatocarpon and Polyblastia — are formed from the

VOL. I. N

184 Transactions of the . [Sess.

thallus gonidia of the Lichen, and are cast out along with the spores
of the Fungi, so that Avhen these spores germinate, the hyphae again
enclose the gonidia. In this Avay, in both the animal and the Lichen,
there is a provision by which the symbiotic Algaj are brought into
the closest possible relationship with the reproductive cups, and
every facility is offered for the continuance of the association through
the successive generations. The hymenial layers of the apothecia
may be exposed, as in gymnocarpous Lichens, or there may be an
encircling perithecium, as in angiocarpous Lichens, and the spores
which form in asci by free cell-formation escape by a small orifice at
its extremity, that escape being effected by rupture of the ascal wall,
brought about by swelling resulting from the penetration of moisture
to the hymenium. — (' Encyc. Brit.,' 9th edit.. Art. "Parasitism.")

The only other point that may be noted in connection with Lichens
is that their multiplication is sometimes effected by soredia, in which
case one or several gonidia become surrounded by definite hyphce,
the gonidia divide, and the cortex of the parent ruptures, so that the
soredia escape, and finally develop into a new Lichen. This type of
niidtiplication is, from a symbiotic standpoint, closely correlated with
the contemporaneous escape of fungoid spores and gonidia from the
hymenial region of the reproductive cups of Lichens, and in a similar
way corroborates the intimacy of the association of the algoid and
fungoid constituents — an association which is capable of being pro-
longed through many generations without the production of any
manifest pathological changes on either side.

XIV.— THE NUTHATCH (SITTA EUROPE A).

By Mr A. B. HERBERT, President.

(Bead March 27, 1884.)

This pretty bird, with its peculiar and amusing habits, has always
been a favourite with me from my youth. The male and female are
much alike in colour, the back and head being of a delicate ash
shade, approaching to pale blue ; the under parts cloudy white, with
a slight roseate tint and marks of brown. Meyer's illustration before
you gives a very fair idea of the bird. It is an extremely rare bird
in Scotland, and I expect also in the north of England, for had
one of such colours and habits been common in Yorkshire, it would
not have escaped the acute observation of Waterton. It is very
local in its habitat, for on the west side of my native town of Coven-
try, especially in the old avenue at Allesley Hall, I seldom failed

1883-84-] Edinburgh Naturalists Field Clnb. 1S5

to see them when I Avished ; while on the eastern side of the
town they were seldom met with. Of late years, however, I am
happy to say they have become far more common in Warwick-
shire, and on my annual visit there I invariably notice them. AVhen
at school I learnt to imitate the singular call-note of the I^uthatch
so exactly, that I could often induce it to answer me.

The food of the Nuthatch consists of nuts and filberts, cater-
pillars, insects, berries, hard seeds, and beech-nuts. Bewick men-
tions it as also fond of picking bones ; and a lady friend in Hert-
fordshire Avho is in the habit of throwing Indian corn down for
her poultry, informs me that she has frecjuent and welcome visits
from a iSTuthatch, Avhich fixes the grains of INIaize in the rough
bark of a tree and pecks them to pieces. In the autumn nuts form
the principal and most attractive food of the Nuthatch, and the
method of extracting the kernel is at once quite unique and interest-
ing. I was always careful in England to have some nuts left on
my bushes for the especial use of the Nuthatch, and never tired of
noticing his proceedings. The nut was carried by the bird to the
stem of a tree having rough bark, and inserted, with the point of
the nut outwards, in a fissure of the bark. The bird would then creep
round the nut with his peculiar short jumps till he had a good
position for the attack, usually with his head downwards. I think
it would be in vain for it to attempt to break a nut by the mere
use of the cervical sinews ; but malting his neck rigid and in a
line with his body, with the beak at right angles, and the sharp
claws as a fulcrum, the bird for the time assumes the form of a
small pick or hammer, and pegs away with all his weight and might
at the pointed end of the nut, Avhere the shell is thinnest, and the
noise of this pretty hammer I have heard at a considerable distance.
It has been stated that the bird can in this way penetrate the hardest
nut, but this is not strictly true, for I have more than once seen
it fail, and well remember, as a boy, carrying one of these failures
for some time in my pocket, with numerous marks of the bird's
bill on the pointed end. I never knew it break a nut which con-
tained no kernel, and I suppose the hoUowness of the sound would
at once indicate that its labour would be unproductive. I once saw
the rough bark of an Elm near some Beeches entirely studded in every
crevice with the shells of l)eech-nuts, evidently the work of the Nut-
hatch. The late Rev. W. T. Bree of Allesley records an instance of
one of these birds being caught in a common brick-trap ; and so per-
sistent was it in hammering the bricks in its eff'orts to escape, that
when found the point of its bill was quite worn away. I also heard
of one being placed in an ordinary cage, which kept up a continuous
attack on the woodwork for hours, till some one remarked that he
feared he was making his coffin, Avhich proved only too true, as in
the morning the poor bird was found dead in the cage. But though

1 86 Transactions of the [Sess.

Nuthatches are very impatient of restraint when captured at matur-
ity, they Avill become quite tame if taken young and brought up
by hand. They are most amusing pets, running over their owner
in all directions, up and down his body and limbs, poking their
bills into seams and holes as if in search of food upon some old
or rent tree, and uttering during the time a low and plauitive cry.
The Nuthatch flies from tree to tree in short spasmodic jerks, and
its mode of progression on the trees is very dissimilar from that
of the common Creeper {Oertliia familiaris). The latter uses its
stijff tail as a support in climbing; the Nuthatch never does, but,
clinging with its tenacious claws, it creeps by short jerks forwards
and backwards and sideways with the greatest facility. The nest
of the Nuthatch is often a hole made by the Woodpecker ; and
if the orifice is too large to be readily defended, the bird plasters
j)art of it up with mud, and a hole thus diminished is always a
safe find of a Nuthatch-nest to bird-nesting boys. These birds seem
to have very little fear of mankind, and to be utterly regardless of
his near approach, for they will hunt over the stems of trees for
food and break nuts while an onlooker stands only a few yards
away. I much regret that this bird, which remains with us in
England throughout the year, is almost unknown in Scotland. We
should all welcome its cheery note and amusing habits on our
summer excursions. It has a wide range on the Continent. Two
years ago, during a walk before breakfast at Thun, in Switzerland,
I saw seven or eight of them ; and I noticed one also at Lauter-
brunnen, so that in that vicinity it cannot be a rare bird. There are
many familiar rural spring sounds in England which one misses on
coming to Scotland. I would instance the "chaff" of the Chiff-
chafif, the laugh of the Yaffle, the charming and varied melody of the
Nightingale, the plaintive whine of the Wryneck, the purring murmur
of the Turtle, the shriek of the brilliant Ivingtisher, and the whistle
of the pretty Nuthatch, all of Avhich would probably be heard at the
end of A]jril in the course of a five-mile walk in Warwickshire.

At this meeting the Eev. R. E, Colvin read a short paper on the
Palms of India, which was illustrated by specimens obtained from
the Eoyal Botanic Garden.

MEETINGS OF MICBOSCOPIG SEGTION.

At a meeting of the Club, held on the 26th October 1883, it was
agreed to hold a series of meetings, during the winter months, for
practical work with the microscope. Eive such meetings were held.

1 8 8 3 - 84- ] Edin bii rgJi Naturalists' Field Clu b. 187

■which met Avith great acceptance, and were most numerously at-
tended. At the first meeting, Dr J. M. Macfarlane was chosen Presi-
dent of the section, and the following is a sketch of the work done at
the meetings : —

The method of cutting and staining vegetable sections, and mount-
ing the same in Glycerine Jelly, Acetic Acid, and Canada Ualsam,
was demonstrated by Dr Macfarlane and Mr A. D. Eichardson ; and
Mr John Heggie showed and explained the extraction, preparation,
and mounting of molluscan palates.

At the fifth meeting of the section, Mr A, Frazer, M.A., optician,
submitted a short paper descriptive of the various methods of micro-
metrical measurement. It was explained that the process is essen-
tially the same as that followed in measuring the length of any
substance by means of a foot-rule. The process was illustrated in a
variety of ways. The construction of stage and eye- piece micrometers
having been explained, the method of using them Avas demonstrated
by measuring a blood corpuscle. It was also shown that the most
convenient method of micrometrical measurement is that of using a
stage-micrometer in conjunction with a camera-lucida. The action
of the camera-lucida having been explained, Beale's method of using
a sheet of paper divided into squares of a determined micrometrical
value was also demonstrated, and the size of a blood corpuscle
measured Avhen its image Avas thrown upon the intersecting squares.

A short discussion folloAved, in Avhich Mr Forgan, Mr Charles
Fraser, and others, took part.

ANNUAL BUSINESS MEETING.

The Annual Business Meeting of the Club Avas held on the evening
of the 29th IS'ovember 1883. The Secretary and Treasurer pre-
sented a brief report of the Avork done during the previous Session ;
and also submitted his Financial Statement, Avhich Avas approved of.
The various Office-bearers were elected, and the list for Session 1883-
84 stands as under, viz. : — -

President.— A. B. Herbert. Vice-President— P, B. Gibb.

T. B. Sl-RAGUE.

John Heggie.
Chas. F. Robertson.
W. Tait Kinneau.

Council.

Egbert Thomson.
George Bird.
Robert Steavart.
Dr L. Dobbin.

John Walcot.
Symington Grieve.
Geo. L. Brown.
Chas. Fraser.

Secretary and Treasurer. — Andrew Moffat.
Auditors.— Alex. Matheson ; J. A. Brodie.

1 88 Transactions of the Edin. Nat. Field Ciitb. [Sess. 1 883-84.

The Financial Statement showed an income, including balance from
previous year, of £57, lis. 5d., and an expenditure of £32, 14s. 4-|-d.,
leaving a balance in favour of the Club of £24, 17s. 0|d.

The following meetings were held during Session 1882-83 — viz. :
Evening Meetings — 27th Oct. 1882, First Evening Meeting; 23d
ISTov., Annual and Second Evening Meeting; 22d Dec, Third
Evening Meeting; 25th Jan. 1883, Fourth Evening Meeting; 2 2d.
Feb., Fifth Evening Meeting ; 2 2d March,- Sixth Evening Meeting;
13th April, Conversazione. Field Meetings — 24th Feb., Arniston ;
21st April, Eoslin; 28th April, Ptatho ; 5th May, Straiton; 9th
May, East London Street, Edinburgh; 12th May, JSTorth Berwick;
19th May, Linlithgow; 26th May, Glencorse ; 2d June, Gosford ;
9th June, Arniston ; 16th June, West Linton ; 20th June, Salisbury
Crags; 23d June, Winchburgh; 30th June, ISTorth Queensferry ;
4th July, Blackford Hill; 7th July, Balerno ; 14th July, Inchkeith,
and Dredging in the Firth; 18th July, Blackhall; 8th Sept., Colin-
ton; 15th Sept., Morrison's Haven, — in all, 27 meetings, with an
aggregate attendance of 991, which gives an average of nearly 37 at
each meeting. During the Session, 10 names have been withdrawn
from the roll, and 46 new names have been added, making a net
increase of 36.

l— FIELD-NATURALISTS.
By Mr A. B. HERBERT, President.

(Head Nov. 27, 1884.)

By your favour, I once more have the honour of appearing as Presi-
dent of your Chib, and I have much pleasure in again congratu-
lating you on our continued prosperity. We were never so
numerous a body as at the present time, and we will hope that we
shall keep pace with the times in intellectual progress and develop-
ment. The principal innovation we have made during the past
year was the institution of winter meetings for microscopical work,
and it is gratifying to know that these meetings, under the able
presidency of Dr Macfarlane, so efficiently supported by many
other members, have been well attended and most successful. Our
summer excursions were also numerously attended and much
enjoyed. There is, as I trust there ever will be, one pre-eminent
characteristic of our Club — namely, the good-fellowship and un-
alloyed harmony prevailing amongst us, which I attribute in no
small degree to the humanising and genial influence we derive
from admitting lady members to the Club, some of whom are
excellent field-naturalists.

By " field-naturalists," in the general acceptation of the term,
we understand those lovers of nature who take delight in observ-
ing the habits and instincts of animals, the beauties and varieties
of our flora, the formation and stratification of the rocks, and the
vast wonders of the mineral kingdom ; and we add also those
who, by the aid of the microscope, investigate the minute forms of
animal and vegetable life, and by careful scientific research eluci-
date many important discoveries.

Some comprehensive minds acquire knowledge in many branches
of natural history, but the majority are content with taking up one
or two subjects, and making these a hobby or speciality, — and I
would here remark that a man who has no hobby in life connected
with objects of nature is, in my opinion, one not to be envied ; for
of what a large amount of pleasure and innocent gratification is he
not deprived in his daily walks or drives ! A wealthy manufacturer
recently told me that by sticking too closely to business in early life,
and not observing natural objects and occurrences around him, he
was convinced he had deprived himself of an endless amount of real
enjoyment. Half a century ago, a person seen gazing for any

VOL. I. O

190 Transactions of the [Sess.

length of time at a bird or insect, or gathering and examining a
weed, or breaking rocks and stones, was looked upon rather as a
naturalist with the three last letters omitted, or, as they say in Scot-
land, " daft " ; but now happily all this is changed, and any one pur-
suing these inquiries in the present age is not considered absolutely
insane. It is true he may, under certain circumstances, run the
risk of being considered a poacher, as occurred to a gentleman well
known to many of us last summer. He wished to ascertain some
details respecting the habits of birds near the Pentlands, and for
this purpose, in Izaak Walton's words, he "prevented the sun-
rising," and just at dawn found himself suddenly confronted by a
sturdy keeper, who exclaimed, with an air of evident disappoint-
ment, " Oh, it's you, is it ! why, I have been watching you for the
last half hour through the mist, in the hope that I was about to
nail a poacher."

I purpose in these remarks to consider field-naturalists and their
work, and to take as types of a class Gilbert White and Charles
Waterton ; and if I were to name a living author whose example we
should do well to follow, it would be pre-eminently Sir John Lub-
bock, for it is impossible for any one to read his recent remarks on
insects without being forcibly impressed by the indomitable pa-
tience and perseverance which characterised his researches, and
how, in order to ascertain with accuracy any particular fact, he
closely watched for hours and days the actions of the creatures
who were then the subjects of his investigations. The discoveries
and theories of Darwin would well occupy a whole evening or
more, and may perhaps appropriately form the subject of some
future president's address. Frank Buckland, too, has written
much that is novel and instructive.

The first book I ever purchased with my scanty pocket-money,
when nine years old, was a very minute and portable edition of
' The Compleat Angler,' often at that time perused in many a pic-
turesque spot beside a midland stream, while waiting for a nibble
by Perch or Gudgeon. My second purchase, a few years later,
was White's ' Natural History of Selborne,' which I well remember
I read with great delight and interest. It was kept under the
school-desk on a ledge constructed for a slate, whence it could be
furtively slipped out and placed open over a Latin dictionary, and
perused, as Hood expresses it, " by stealth 'twixt verb and noun."
There were three other boys at the same desk who heartily joined
me in notices of natural objects, and we were in the habit of dis-
cussing any incident which occurred in our half-holiday rambles,
often refening to White's 'Selborne' for confirmation of our remarks.
I have met with all these three boys in after-life, and with the same
good-fellowship which existed at school. One is now a dean ;
another a rector ; and the third, a quiet but plucky boy, afterwards

1884-85-] Edinhirgh Naturalists Field Club. 191

led a body of Highlanders up the heights of Alma, and was
" winged " in the Indian mutiny, — an event, he says, much re-
gretted, because it obliged him ever after to play cricket with only
one arm. He became aide-de-camp to the Queen, and a C.B., and
now stands high in the service, and has recently written an
autobiography in two portly volumes, designated ' The Life of a
Soldier.' But he was ever mindful of his happy school-life, and I
see in his book he refers to our kind-hearted master, and mentions
me as one of the companions of his youth,

Gilbert White was born in 1720 at Selborne, a village near Wol-
mer Forest, a secluded and picturesque spot in the eastern corner
of Hampshire. Wolmer is a corruption of Wolfmer, in the same
way that we have Cranmer and Hogmer, all after animals since
become extinct in these islands, — namely the Wolf, the Crane, and
the Hog or wild Boar. After a school career at Basingstoke,
White became a student at Oriel College, Oxford, where he gradu-
ated in 1743. He was elected a Fellow of his College in the next
year, and was one of the senior proctors of the University in 1752.
I need scarcely remark that he was always an ardent lover of
nature. He was curate of Farringdon for eighteen years, when he
accepted the same office in his native village of Selborne, where in
patient observation and careful recording of facts and phenomena
in natural history, he passed the remaining years of his tranquil and
uneventful life. He was often offered Church preferment, which
would have added much to his pecuniary emoluments; but this he
always declined, from his strong attachment to his native village and
its surroundings, and felt that he should better consult his happiness
by remaining the quiet, unassuming, but very observant country
curate, than by going to a populous locality where his favourite
pursuits could not be followed. And we well believe he was right,
for had he accepted the offered preferment, White's * Selborne '
would never have been written, to become, as it has, the charm and
delight of future generations.

There is no portrait existing of Gilbert White. He is described
by one of his parishioners as a little, slim, prim, upright man :
another says he was thought very little of till he was dead and
gone, and then he was thought a great deal of ; that he was a
quiet old gentleman, with very old-fashioned sayings ; that he was
extremely kind in giving presents to the poor, and that he used to
give a number of poor people a goose each every Christmas. He died
at Selborne unmarried in 1793, and his last illness must have been
of short duration, for there is a certificate of death signed by him
as -curate on the 10th June, and he died before the expiration of
that month. He suffered at times from deafness, and he laments
this affliction, in a letter dated 1774, thus: " Frequent returns of
deafness incommode me sadly, and half disqualify me for a natural-

192 Transactions of the [Sess.

ist ; for wlien these fits are upon me I lose all the pleasing notices
and little intimations arising from rural sounds ; and May is to me
as silent and mute, with respect to the notes of birds, &c., as Aug-
ust ; " and he quotes Milton's words —

" Wisdom at one entrance quite shut out."

The well-known ' Natural History of Selborne ' was first pub-
lished in 1789. It consists of a series 'of letters extending over a
period of twenty years, the first letter being written when White
was about forty-five years old. The letters were addressed to
Thomas Pennant and the Hon. Daines Barrington, — written with
so much enthusiasm, painstaking accuracy, and simplicity of style,
that White's ' Selborne ' became, what it still remains, one of the
standard popular favourites, " without which no English library is
complete." The edition in two volumes is the most perfect and
charming one which has been published : it is edited by the late
Frank Buckland. The illustrations of those picturesque spots so
often mentioned by White — as the Hanger, the Plestor, and the
rocky lane — are beautifully executed ; but I consider many of the
illustrations of birds are not so true to nature as those of Yarrell
or Bewick. After White's death his house became for many years
the charming residence of Professor Bell. The Plestor or Pleystow,
in the centre of the village, signiSes a playing-place or play-
ground. In the midst of the Plestor stood in old times a vast Oak,
with a short squat body and huge horizontal arms, extending
almost to the extremity of the area. This venerable tree, sur-
rounded with stone steps and seats above them, was, we are told,
the delight of old and young, and a place of much resort in summer
evenings, where the former sat in grave debate, while the latter
frolicked and danced before them.

I have never visited Selborne, but it is spoken of by Buckland
as a very pretty place — a perfect type of English woodland scenery
and country life. It can be reached from London in two hours by
rail, and a five-mile walk or drive from Alton station ; and the vil-
lage is very little altered since White's time. I wish it were
within easy reach of our Club.

White's style of writing is clear, concise, painstaking, and accu-
rate, and he is most careful always to distinguish the record of a
fact as the result of his own observation from what has been com-
municated to him by others. The naturalist's calendar contained
in White's work is most copious and useful : it is a record of occur-
rences noticed by White in Hampshire, and by William Markwick
in Sussex, placed in two columns, and records the arrival and de-
parture of migratory birds, the dates of nidification of these and
others, the appearances of insects, and the dates of flowering of
many of our wild plants. It is remarkable that the dates of the ar-

1884-85.] Edinburgh Naturalists' Field Chib. 193

rival of our summer migrants are all much earlier than our experi-
ence here would lead us to expect, making, of course, due allow-
ance for the difference in latitude — though 500 or 600 miles is
really not a matter of much time to a Swallow, whose rate of flight
must be fully equal to that of the fastest express train. White
gives the Sand-martin, March 21 ; the Swallow, March 26 ; and the
House-martin, March 28.

White had peculiar views on migration, and never quite aban-
doned the idea that some of the Swallow kind hibernated here. I
will give two brief extracts in confirmation of this. Speaking of
the House-martin, he says : " I see by my Fauna of last year that
young broods came forth as late as September 18. Are not these
late hatches more in favour of hiding than migration ? " Again he
says, addressing Mr Pennant : " I quite agree with you that though
most of the Swallow kind may migrate, yet that some do stay
behind and hide with us during the winter."

It would occupy too much of our time to give many extracts
from White's writings. I will therefore give you only two —
one illustrative of his graphic and easy style, and the other where
he puts his thoughts into verse. The first is his description of
the nest of the Harvest-mouse {llus messoriiis) — and we must re-
member that he was the first to call the attention of natural-
ists to this, the smallest of British quadrupeds, as a distinct species.
He says : —

" Two of them, in a scale, weighed down just one copper halfpenny, which
is about the third of an ounce, so that I suppose they are the smallest quad-
rupeds in this island. A full-grown Mas domedkus weighs one ounce lump-
ing weight, which is more than six times the mouse above." "One of the
nests of these ' small mice I procured this autumn, most artificially platted,
and composed of the blades of wheat ; perfectly round, and about the size
of a cricket-ball ; with the aperture so ingeniously closed that there was
no discovering to what part it belonged. It was so compact and well
filled that it would roll across the table without being discomposed, though
it contained eight little mice, which were naked and blind. As this nest
was perfectly full, how could the dam come at her litter so as to administer
a teat to each ? Perhaps she opens different places for that purpose, adjust-
ing them again when the business is over : but she could not possibly be
contained herself in the ball with her young, which moreover would be
daily increasing in bulk. This wonderful procreant cradle, an elegant in-
stance of the efforts of instinct, was found in a wheat field suspended in the
head of a thistle."

As a specimen of White's verses, I give you —

THE NATURALIST'S SUMMER-EVENING WALK.

" When day, declining, sheds a milder gleam.

What time the May-fly haunts the pool or stream ;
When the still Owl skims round the grassy mead.
What time the timorous Hare limps forth to feed.

194 Transactions of the [Sess.

Then be the time to steal adown the vale,
And listen to the vagrant Cuckoo's tale ;
To hear the clamorous Curlew call his mate,
Or the soft Quail his tender pain relate ;
To see the Swallow sweep the dark'ning plain
Belated, to support her infant train ;
To mark the Swift in rapid giddy ring
Dash round the steeple, unsubdued of wing :
Amusive bu-ds ! say, where your hid retreat,
When the frost rages and the tempests beat ?
Whence your return, by such nice instinct led,
When spi-ing, soft season, lifts her bloomy head ?
Such baffled searches mock man's prying pride,
The God of Nature is your secret guide !

While deep'ning shades obscure the face of day,
To yonder bench, leaf -sheltered, let us stray.
Till blended objects fail the swimming sight,
And all the fading landscape sinks in night ;
To hear the drow^sy Dorr come brushing by
With buzzing wing, or the shrill Cricket cry ;
To see the feeding Bat glance through the wood ;
To catch the distant falling of the flood ;
While o'er the cliff th' awakened Churn-owl hung,
Through the still gloom protracts his chattering song ;
While, high in air, and poised upon his wings.
Unseen, the soft enamoured Woodlark suigs :
These, Nature's works, the curious mind employ,
Inspire a soothing melancholy joy :
As fancy warms, a pleasing kind of pain
Steals o'er the cheek, and thrills the creeping vein !

Each rural sight, each sound, each smell combine ;
The tinkling sheep-bell, or the breath of kine ;
The new-mown hay that scents the swelling breeze.
Or cottage chimney smoking through the trees.
The chilling night-dews fall : away, retire.
For see the Glow-worm lights her amorous fire."

I thus conclude my remarks on Gilbert White, and will now
proceed to the consideration of the life and writings of Charles
Waterton. Of Charles Waterton we know far more than we do of
Gilbert White, because he published an autobiography, and it is
a very interesting and amusing one. And he also has a good
biographer in Mr Norman Moore. He was born on the 3d June
1782, and in the year 1837 he thus describes himself: —

"I was born at Walton Hall, near Wakefield, in the county of York, some
55 years ago. This tells me I am no chicken ; but were I asked how
I feel with regard to the approaches of old age, I should quote Dryden's
translation of the description which the Roman poet gives us of Charon —

' He seemed in years, yet in Ids years were seen
A vernal vigour and autumnal green.'

In fact, I feel as though I were not more than 30 years old. I am free from
rheumatic pains, and so supple in the joints that I can climb a tree with the
utmost facility. I stand six feet all but half an inch. On looking at myself

1884-85-] Edinburgh Naturalists' Field Club. 195

in the glass, I can see at once that my face is anytliing but comely : con-
tinual exposure to the sun and to the rains of the tropics has furrowed it in
places, and given it a tint which neither Rowland's Kalydor nor all the
cosmetics of Belinda's toilet would ever be able to remove. My hair, which
I wear very short, was once of a shade betwixt brown and black : it has now
the appearance as though it had passed the night exposed to a November hoar-
frost. I cannot boast of any great strength of arm, but my legs, by much
walking and fre(|ueutly ascending trees, have acquii'ed vast muscular power ;
so that on taking a view of me from top to toe, you would say that the upper
part of Tithonus was placed on the lower part of Ajax ; or, to speak zoolog-
ically, were I exhibited at a horse-fair, some learned jockey woiild exclaim,
' He is half Rosinante and half Bucephalus ! ' By giving this description of
myself, it will prevent all chance in future of the nondescript's portrait in the
' Wanderings ' being taken for my own,"

This latter remark requires some explanation. Waterton had
often severely criticised the very defective manner in which the
skins of animals are stuffed for our national museums ; and to show
that a skin may be so prepared as to resemble almost anything, he
stuffed a monkey's or some other skin so that it bore some faint
resemblance to a human being, and this " nondescript," as he
terms it, was figured in the ' Wanderings,' and a worthy Yorkshire
baronet, on taking up the book and showing the frontispiece to his
friends, said, " Dear me, what a very extraordinary-looking man
Mr Waterton must be ! " Waterton and all his family for genera-
tions were strong adherents of the Romish Church, and after a few
years at a preparatory school near Durham, he went to the Jesuit
college at Stonyhurst, and always looked back upon the time he
spent there with a feeling of great respect and veneration for the
Fathers of the Church who were his preceptors. He tells us that
at college he soon became noted for his knowledge of the habits
and instincts of animals, and was by common consent considered
rat-catcher, fox-taker, and foumart-killer to the establishment. He
says : —

"Moreover, I fulfilled the duties of organ-blower and football-maker with
entire satisfaction to the public. I was now at the height of my ambition. I
followed up my calling with great success. The vermin disappeared by the
dozen ; the books were moderately well thumbed ; and, according to my
notion of things, all went on perfectly right. The day I left the Jesuit
college was one of heartfelt sorrow to me."

^Cj^

At Stonyhurst there are boundaries marked out for the students
which they are not allowed to pass, and just outside the boundary
was a very extensive labyrinth of Yew and Holly trees. This place
was a great attraction to Waterton, as it was a chosen place for
animated nature. He says : —

' ' Birds, in particular, used to frequent the spacious enclosure, and many
a time have I hunted there the Foumart and Squirrel. I once took a cut
through it to a neighbouring wood, where I knew of a Can-ion-crow's nest.
The prefect missed me, and judging I had gone into the labyrinth, gave chase

196 Transactions of the [Sess.

without loss of time. After eluding him in cover for nearly half an hour,
being hard pressed I took down a hedgerow. Here he got a distant sight of
me ; but it was not sufficiently distinct for him to know for a certainty that
I was the fugitive. I luckily succeeded in reaching the outbuildings which
abutted on the college. I had just time to enter the postern gate of a pig-
sty, when, most opportunely, I found old Joe Bo wren bringing straw into the
sty. He was more attached to me than to any other boy, for I had known
him when I was at school in the north, and had made him a present of a very
fine terrier. ' I've just saved myself, Joe,' said I ; ' cover me up with litter. '
He had barely complied with my request when in bounced the prefect.
' Have you seen Charles Waterton ? ' said he, quite out of breath. My trusty
guardian answered, in a tone of voice which would have deceived any one,
' Sir, I have not spoken a word to Charles Waterton these three days, to the
best of my knowledge. ' Upon this the prefect went his way, and when he had
disappeared I stole out of my cover strongly perfumed."

After leaving college Waterton spent some time on tlie Continent,
and it was wlien sailing from an English port that the following
incident occurred, which speaks well for Waterton as a generous-
hearted man, and capable of using his good sense with promptitude
on an emergency. A Scotch brig, bound for Vigo, was sailing from
the same port at the same time as the vessel containing Waterton,
and he learned from one of the sailors that the mate of the brig
was in a conspiracy to murder the captain and run away with the
vessel. Waterton questioned the sailor very minutely, and satisfied
himself that the captain of the brig was in imminent danger ; and
he determined, if possible, to thwart the rascal's design. So he
committed the sailor's statement to writing, and enclosed it in a
bottle, then hailed the captain of the brig soon after leaving the
port, and threw the bottle on the quarter-deck. The captain took
it below, and soon returned on deck and made a very low bow to
express his gratitude for the timely warning.

Waterton made four voyages to America, and afterwards wrote
the ' Wanderings ' — a very interesting work to naturalists, and
which brought him into much public notice. He greatly delighted
in observing the habits of birds, and other animals new to him, in
the primeval forests of Demerara. He afterwards wrote an auto-
biography, extending over a large portion of his long life, and
subsequently his ' Essays on Natural History.' These essays
are to a student of nature most attractive reading, for Waterton
had opportunities of carrying out his observations which few
possess.

Walton Hall, near Wakefield, his ancestral home, is situated on
an island in a picturesque lake, the access to the house being by a
drawbridge. All animals, with one notable exception, were strictly
protected ; and from the windows, with the aid of a telescope, he
could notice the habits of the wild-fowl on the lake, and the various
other creatures under his protection, — and the result of these ob-
servations form the subjects of the Essays. Waterton's descriptions

1884-85.] Edinburgh Naturalists' Field Club. 197

are always graphic and simple, and his style pleasing ; and it has
been remarked that his Essays may very appropriately take their
place beside White's ' Selborne.' The exceptional animal to which
Waterton would give no protection, but with which he carried on
war to the knife, was the common Brown Rat — an animal, as we
know, not indigenous to these islands. Waterton asserts with
great confidence that the same vessel which brought over William
III. brought also the Hanoverian or Norway Eat, and he looked, as
a Catholic and naturalist, on both arrivals as unmitigated evils.^

Waterton was very severe in his criticism of Audubon's account
of the Passenger-pigeon, endeavouring to show that the latter's
statement of the enormous congregation of these birds was a gross
exaggeration. But after an assemblage I once witnessed of our
common Starling, I can believe much of Audubon's essay. There
is a place in my native county where the public road is separated
from a small lake by a narrow belt of plantation, and at this part
of the lake is a large bed of reeds — a favourite roosting-place for
Starlings in tlie winter. Some years ago, about Chi'istmas, I was
passing this spot at sunset, on a calm evening, when, all at once, I
heard what I supposed to be a rush of wind through the trees, and
immediately a black cloud seemed to come over, making it very
perceptibly darker. I looked up, and the sight which I then wit-
nessed was one never to be forgotten. A cloud was indeed passing
over, but it was not one of vapour, but a very dense one of Starlings,
and the noise, as I supposed of wind, was made by the wings of
the birds as they rose from the reeds. Above and all around me
in the air, covering a large area, there was nothing to be seen but
Starlings, and I can say with perfect truth that tliey darkened the
air. No doubt we have all seen such large flocks, but this was
evidently all the flocks from the country round met together, and it
would be impossible for me to form at all an adequate estimate of
numbers ; and after witnessing this, I could not help thinking
Audubon's account of the Passenger-pigeon might not be so improb-
able or impossible as Waterton would wish us to believe. Waterton
on some questions in Natural History takes up a position which
to my mind is untenable, though I should maintain on the whole
that he was a most careful and accurate observer. He always
denied the utility — nay, the existence — of the oil-gland in birds ;
and his reasoning on the subject is to me very unsatisfactory.
I imagine no one can watch carefully the habits of our common
Duck without being convinced that Waterton was wrong. Daily
do I observe my beautiful little Call-drake pinch this gland with

^ From information which has recently reached us, it appears that the
Norway Rat has been unfortunately allowed to gain a footing in New Zealand,
and is treating the indigenous New Zealand Rat as it did our Black Rat, ren-
dering its extermination almost a certainty.

iqS Transactions of the [Sess.

Ills mandibles, tlien preen his feathers, and roll his brilliant green
head on the gland ; and I cannot believe that these acts are with-
out effect on the plumage.

Waterton's strong attachment to the Eomish Church is manifest
in almost all his writings ; and he never forgave Oliver Cromwell
for breaking down the drawbridge at Walton Hall, and firing
musket-balls into the old oaken gates. He tells us these balls
are still there ; and that Cromwell, not being able to get in, car-
ried off everything, in the shape of horses and cattle, which his
men could lay their hands on. Waterton occasionally uses strong
language when he speaks of controversial theology. He says he
would rather run the risk of going to hell with St Edward the
Confessor, the' Venerable Bede, and St Thomas of Canterbury, than
make a dash at heaven in company with Harry VIIL, Queen Bess,
and Dutch William.

It was a matter of extreme regret to Waterton, as it is to many
of us, that all rare birds which appear here should be at once
slaughtered and become specimens for our museums, and that we
should now have to visit Holland to see the true habits of the Stork,
or roam through Germany to enjoy the soaring of the Kite. It is now
about forty years ago since I stood at the Devil's Bridge in Wales,
and watched for some time the graceful gyrations of this splendid
Hawk : I fear it would be difficult now to see one in all the Princi-
pality. And when recently, at Basle, a Stork flew by my bedroom
window to his nest on a housetop, and was seen afterwards walking
about in a field close to some peasants, it was, I confess, with a
feeling of shame that I thought of our treatment here of these and
so many other beautiful birds.

One of Waterton's visits to South America was undertaken
mainly to procure the wourali poison with which the natives poison
their arrows, and which, it was supposed, from its peculiar pro-
perties, might prove an efficacious remedy for those dreadful mala-
dies, tetanus and hydrophobia. His experiments with this on three
quadrupeds showing manifest symptoms of rabies were successful
in two cases, failing in one ; and Waterton was very desirous of
trying the effect on a human being — offering to travel any distance
to administer it, if telegraphed for. It is unfortunate that he was
never able to ascertain its efficiency in this respect, for in the only
instance in which he was summoned, the patient died before his
arrival.

Both White and Waterton had observed that, in their respective
localities, the Eooks in the several rookeries had some favourite
resort for roosting in the winter. In the neighbourhood of Sel-
borne. White tells us, they retired for the night to the beechen woods
of Tisted and Eopley. Waterton says that in his neighbourhood
they roosted in the woods of Nostell Priory. In Warwickshire they

1884-85-] Edinbui'gh Naturalists' Field Club. 199

go to the woods of Combe and Packington ; and on the south side
of Edinburgh, where there are many small rookeries, I believe they
go to Dalkeith, for I have often observed them coming from that
direction about sunrise.

One of Waterton's favourite birds was that most useful but per-
secuted bird the Barn-owl, for which he had constructed a nest in
a ruined tower. He afterwards increased the number of nests to
four, and, at the time he wrote, he hoped to have nine broods of
these birds on his property. He says : " This pretty aerial wan-
derer of the night often comes into my room on wing so soft and
silent that he is scarcely heard. He takes his departure by the
same window at which he had entered." Waterton observed that
these most valuable birds brought a mouse to their young every
twelve or fifteen minutes. In his protection of the Barn-owl,
Waterton found a warm sympathiser in his friend and correspon-
dent, Alfred Ellis of Belgrave, in Leicestershire — all bird-life being
protected there, as it was at Walton ; and I chance to know, from
some of his nearest relations, that there could scarcely be a more
truly humane and kind-hearted man than the owner of Belgrave.

At Walton Hall there is a very extraordinary instance of the
power of arboreal growth. Near the ruins of a mill a millstone
seventeen feet in circumference had been left for some years, and a
Nut-tree grew through the centre hole. Waterton would not have
this disturbed, and the tree grew year after year till it filled up the
hole in the centre, and then gradually began to raise the stone
from its bed ; and when Waterton wrote, the stone was eight
inches above the ground, and entirely supported by the tree, which
had grown to the height of twenty-five feet, and bore excellent
fruit. Strangers often inspected this curiosity, and Waterton re-
marks that he never passed without its reminding him of poor old
John Bull with a weight of eight hundred millions of pounds round
his galled neck. It was a great pleasure to Waterton to walk with
visitors over his domain, especially to such as took an interest in
bird life, and show them the numerous living creatures under his
protection, — not forgetting the hole in the old gateway with pen-
dent ivy over it, which he constructed for the Barn-owl to rear her
annual brood ; or the twenty-four holes in the same erection made
by him for the twenty-four pairs of Starlings which annually built
there.

Waterton was a thorough enthusiast in his study of nature.
Some years ago, on inquiring of an intimate friend of his what he
was doing, he told me that information had reached Walton that a
quadruped new to science had been discovered on the lower Nile,
and that Waterton had at once started for Egypt to see it. He was
most courageous under pain. He once had his finger shattered by
a gun accident, and he gathered together the shattered tendons.

200 Transactions of the [Sess.

bound up the same, and then bled himself. He was a strong advo-
cate for phlebotomy m all cases of fever, and always carried a
lancet. He says he had been bled 110 times, in 80 of which
he performed the operation on himself. Waterton's marriage was
a very happy one, but unfortunately his wedded life was of short
duration, for his wife died soon after giving birth to his only child.
It was remarked that he never spoke a word to any one for a week
after her decease. The old Squire, as he was called, died at Wal-
ton Hall in 1865, at the venerable age of 83, from the effects of
an accidental fall while walking with a friend. He was, by his
own desire, buried in a picturesque spot between two grand old
Oaks on his estate, where in the previous year he had erected a
plain stone cross. I need scarcely add that he was much and
deservedly respected and beloved.

Gilbert White's writings are so universally known and appreci-
ated, that they require no eulogium from me ; but Waterton's are
not so extensively read as they deserve. In both cases they are
the j)roductions of true field-naturalists, and well worthy of close
perusal. My remarks on these two eminent field-naturalists have
necessarily been of a sketchy character, for in an address of this kind
it is impossible to do adequate justice to them. They had much in
common — much that was diverse. The one, the quiet, patient, and
benevolent country curate, carefully recorded everything interest-
ing in animal life which he saw around him : the other, a more
enterprising spirit, sought adventure and information in the prim-
eval forests of South America. Both were thoroughly imbued with
a love of nature, and a desire to see greater kindness and humanity
practised in our treatment of animals ; both were generous to the
poor, and active in relieving distress. I venture to think we may
derive much benefit and advantage from a more intimate study of
the lives and writings of Gilbert White and Charles Waterton. '

11.— NOTE ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF HONEY^GLANDS
IN PITGHEREI) INSECTIVOROUS PLANTS.

By Mr JOHN LINDSAY.

(Read Nov. 27, 1884.)

At the close of Mr Eichardson's paper on " Carnivorous Plants,"
read before the Club last session, it was remarked regarding these
plants that '' even more startling facts than any yet discovered

1884-85-] Edinburgh Naturalists Field Club. 201

may some day be brought to light." It was then little thought,
doubtless, that one such discovery would soon be made, and by a
member of this Club, I refer to the interesting fact, just made
known by Dr Macfarlane, that in the genus Nepenthes — the well-
known Pitcher-plant — not only is honey secreted by the inside of
the lid and the mouth of the pitcher, as we already knew, but the
outer surface of the pitcher, as well as that of the lid, also possesses
honey-glands. Further, the whole so-called ** leaf," or expanded
lamina, including the thong-like prolongation of the midrib to the
end of which the pitcher is attached, may be regarded as a complete
insect-lure, seeing it also is found to be studded with honey-secreting
glands, thus presenting to unwary insects a long but pleasant pas-
sage to the cavity of the pitcher below. The stem, too, was found to
possess glands for honey secretion — in some species to a greater
extent than in others. On the Curator of the Royal Botanic Garden
drawing Dr Macfarlane's attention to the viscid nature of the fluid
secreted by Nepenthes when flowering, it was found that this also
was a honey secretion, and glands were discovered to be present
on the upper epidermis of the sepals. Dr Macfarlane then made
a minute examination of the other three genera of pitchered in-
sectivorous plants at present in cultivation — viz., Sarracenia, Dar-
lingtonia, and Cephalotus — with the result that substantially the
same condition of things was found to subsist in them all. The
Pitcher-plants may thus be regarded as ingenious mechanisms for
first attracting insects, in order to receive their aid in fertilisation ;
and next, for the capture of these insects, and their subsequent
appropriation for purposes of nutrition.

This discovery is the more noteworthy, seeing that Sir Joseph
Hooker has written an elaborate monograph of the genus Nepen-
thes ; and it might naturally have been concluded that, when such
an accurate and painstaking observer had wrought out the subject
by making it a special study, it would have been practically ex-
hausted. Only a year ago, however. Professor Dickson was the
first to notice the " attractive " glands in the rim of Nepenthes,
which he has named " marginal glands"; and this is now followed
by the discovery here noted. Dr Macfarlane intends shortly to
publish the results of his investigations ; but it seemed to be a
fitting thing to notice the matter here, though already pretty
widely known to a circle of scientific friends, and to congratulate
Dr Macfarlane on his important and interesting discovery.^

1 A resum4 of this subject appeared in 'Nature' for February 1885 ; and
it also formed the basis of two papers read by Dr Macfarlane before the
Royal Society of Edinburgh in June and July of the present year, and which
will be found in that Society's Transactions.

202 Transactions of the [Sess.

III.— NOTE ON THE APPEARANCE OF THE SAURY PIKE

IN THE FORTH.

By Mr A. B. HERBERT, President.

{Nov. 27, 1884.)

Mr Herbert brought under the notice of the Club the appear-
ance in the Forth at Queensferry of that peculiar fish, the Saury
Pike or Skipper {Scomberesox saurus), and exhibited several speci-
mens sent by Mr Walter Meek, the resident engineer of the Forth
Bridee, who found one had darted with such force into one of
the bolt-holes of the iron plates of the bridge that it was un-
able to extricate itself; and a few days afterwards large shoals of
them were observed, and many captured. Mr Herbert stated that
their visits to the Forth occur at very irregular intervals, several
years sometimes intervening, but these visits are always autumnal.
The fish dart with wonderful rapidity along the surface, and often
when pursued throw themselves out of the water for some dis-
tance, in this respect much resembling the habits of the Flying-
fish. .They are about 14 inches long, with sharp-pointed jaws, and
are much esteemed as food, the flesh being firm and of good
flavour, with very little bone except the line of vertebras.

IV.— THE COMMONER BUNTINGS (EMBERIZIDyE).

By Mr ARCH. CRAIG, Jun.

{Read Dec. 26, 1884.)

Compared with the Warblers treated of last session, the Emberizidse
or Buntings must be acknowledged to hold only an inferior place
in the estimation of naturalists, contrasting as they do in many
ways to the advantage of the former and their own prejudice.
Apart altogether from the fact that our commoner species are, to
all intents and purposes, non-migrator}^, thus losing, in a measure,
the charm which always seems to be inseparable from birds which
travel long distances to incubate in our ungenial climate, they
labour under the more important disadvantage — to us at any rate
— of being comparatively songiess, in that respect being the very
antithesis of our little Warbler friends. Music of a sort they un-
doubtedly indulge in ; but, with every desire to make the most of
their abilities in the direction of melody, and give them the benefit
of every doubt, it cannot be affirmed with truth that their efforts

1884-85.] Edinburgh Naturalists' Field Club. 203

attain to the dignity of a song. Such music as they possess is of
the melancholy order, pretending to no variety — the same few-
notes, with a prolonged one to end up with, being repeated again
and again with monotonous frequency. In addition, mimicry
would not appear to be a feature of their character, and in many
other minor points they fall far short of several orders of birds in
point of interest.

Having thus briefly recapitulated their drawbacks, let us now
turn to the more pleasing side of the subject, and attempt to point
out their good qualities and claims to our favourable consideration.
In general form they are rather stout, with well-marked plumage,
having in common shortish but strong bills of a conical structure,
which, from their formation, are admirably adapted for removing
the husks of grain and seeds, which form their staple diet. Inside
the upper mandible on the palate is a little hard projection which
materially assists the birds in shelling the grain — a propensity
which, if all tales are true, some members of the tribe indulge in to
no limited extent, this questionable conduct having frequently the
effect of rousing the wrath more or less always slumbering in
the bosom of that long-suffering martyr, the British agriculturist.
While speaking of this, it may safely be asserted that there is
almost no animal or bird, however destructive, which has not
some redeeming trait of character — in the self-same way that the
blackest villain shows on occasion a gleam of purer nature than
might have been expected to emanate from such a reprobate. So
the Buntings, although injurious to grain, offer a goodly compensa-
tion by devouring large numbers of beetles and other insects which,
but for the joint efforts of our feathered fauna, would, if unchecked,
do infinitely more harm to crops and other produce, in an insidious
and unpreventable manner, than whole armies of '' granivora?."

Although previously designated as non-migratory, strictly speak-
ing this is not absoluely true, as partial migration takes place even
among the species which at all periods of the year may be observed
somewhere in our islands ; and it is believed that many of the
flocks which collect in autumn cross to the Continent during
winter, and that the numbers of the native species are reinforced
once more in spring — but whether by the same flocks who departed,
or not, it would be impossible to determine with accuracy.

Of the ten species described in Newton's Yarrell, I shall only
bring under your notice four, the remaining six being so uncom-
mon that, save for chance wanderers, they may be said not to visit
Scotland. The names of the four are —

Corn-Bunting, . . . Emhmza miliaria.

Reed-Bunting, . . . Emheriza schcenidus.

Yellow-Bunting, . . . Emheriza citrindla.

Snow-Bunting, . . . Pledrophanes nivalis.

204 Transactions of tJie [Sess.

To commence with tlie Corn-Bunting : this bird is the largest
of his order, and certainly the least numerous in North Britain,
although found more or less in all arable parts over the island.
Information has reached me from several gentlemen in different
districts of Scotland that, whereas in the particular localities in
which they live this species was at one time very plentiful, now
it has, with the exception of a few pairs scattered up and down,
almost entirely disappeared, — some among them attributing this ex-
tinction to the gradual cultivation and draining of the land, which
has swept away many of the old ditches and moist places that used
to border the tilled portions, and which they aver this Bunting
was fond of frequenting. This may or may not be the correct solu-
tion, but it at any rate contains a strong element of probability,
as you will often notice that, during the breeding season, where
such ditches skirt the fields, this Bunting is on most occasions found
inhabiting their vicinity. In the South of England, where it seems
to be most numerous, the numbers . are annually thinned by bird-
catchers, who net them, along with Skylarks, to supply the food
market. This hateful custom, which panders to a low gormandis-
ing taste, is, I am happy to say, except perhaps in a very few
instances, confined to the southern portion of the island — and I feel
confident you will all agree with me in devoutly wishing that the
day is far distant when our countrymen of Scotland will be infected
by such useless and cruel practices. Surely Providence has sup-
plied us with quite a sufficient variety of food to permit of any
palliation for those whose desire for change causes them to connive
at the wanton destruction of our innocent little birds. In our own
locality of Edinburgh the Corn-Bunting may generally be seen in
summer near the road which runs by the side of the Braid Burn
from the foot of Liberton Brae to the Blackford Quarry, and also in
or near the irrigated meadow at Peffer Mill, now traversed by the
Suburban Eailway. Once observed, it cannot be mistaken for any
other species, the peculiar harsh note alone amply indicating its
presence. This note, which is nothing more nor less than what
would be termed in Lowland Scotch a " skraugh," is his utmost
effort at a love-song ; but what it lacks in beauty is fully made up
, for by the patient manner in which the bird will continue for
lengthened periods of time reiterating this dismal ditty to cheer
his mate engaged hard by in nesting duties. Who knows but this
rudimentary dirge may be just as pleasing in the ears of the female
Corn-Bunting as the finer melody of the Nightingale is supposed
to be in those of his partner. On a calm day the note is carried to
long distances ; and as proof of this, and also of the steady per-
sistence with which the bird will remain seated at or near the
same spot during the nesting period, I may mention that last
summer, having occasion to pass and repass a certain field in the

1884-85-] Edinbtt-rgh Naturalists' Field Club. 205

couutry often as frequently as five times a-day, for ten days in
succession, I noticed one particular Bunting always perched on a
wire fence. When within three to four hundred yards of his haunt
the note was quite audible, and notwithstanding the many times of
passing he was never absent once, and never in any case fifty yards
distant from a certain point which he had made his headquarters.
If we can learn no other lesson from this bird, it at least inculcates
upon us the merit of patience. A further peculiarity which dis-
tinguishes it from other small birds is one which, to observe, it is
necessary tliat the spectator be in close proximity. As he rises
from his perch he almost always allows his legs to dangle straight
down, and flies off in that manner until, once fairly on the wing,
he raises them up in the mode common to most species. A wall,
a fence, the top of a small tree, or tall plant, are favourite points of
vantage. The nest is placed, as a rule, on or quite close to the
ground, among long grass or other rank vegetation ; and though,
on the whole, it is not what might be termed a shy bird, yet at
times it is easily heightened from its position on the approach of an
intruder.

The Eeed or Black-headed Bunting is much more clearly defined
in plumage, the male in his nuptial dress having a beautiful jet-
black head and throat, which forms a marked contrast to the
white collar round his neck. In old birds the black and white
are much clearer than in less matured examples, in the latter
the purity of colouring being marred by the presence of dirty
brownish feathers, which mingle with the black and white. In
winter the black of the head becomes of a brownish tint, the points
of the feathers being of that colour, whereas in spring the ends
wear off and reveal the black which forms the groundwork.
The female has no black head, but instead it is oif a reddish-
brown hue, and in place of the white cravat, the feathers at the
back of the neck are a dingy grey ; otherwise in general appear-
ance it resembles the male. Moist and swampy places are its
natural habitat — the sides of rivers, ponds, lakes, especially
where there are reeds and long coarse herbage. In the Highlands
it is very common in those wet areas where rivers separate into
various smaller branches before falling into lochs, and which locali-
ties are usually studded with clumps of Alder and Saugh trees. In
tufts of coarse grass or among reeds it builds its nest, and displays
occasionally great alarm when one inadvertently approaches too near
the site. Some writers indeed assert that it feigns lameness, like
the Lapwing, and resorts to other devices to draw off the inter-
loper ; but for my own part I never saw it do anything that could
be construed into such actions, though it is most likely to be true,
considering the experience of those upon whose authority the
statement is published. It is not always safe to credit every

VOL. I. P

206 • Transactions of the [Sess.

curious tale of extraordinary action in bird life, yet at the same
time it is hardly just to condemn everything in that way that we
may not happen to have ourselves observed, as both birds and
animals sometimes perform manoeuvres that it may not be the lot
of an observer to notice in a lifetime. Indeed, it is beyond dispute
that exigencies may arise when they are forced out of their ordi-
nary rut into adopting tactics, in the interests of self-preservation,
that are, as a general rule, foreign to their natures. The following
device, however, is undoubted : when a person advances too near
the nesting-ground to be pleasant, the bird — sometimes the male,
and sometimes the female — takes up a prominent position on the
top of a bush or bunch of rushes, and continues chirping to attract
attention, at the same time exhibiting great reluctance to move to
any distance, although closely approached. The individual, unless
previously imposed upon, naturally jumps to the conclusion that
the nest is very near at hand to the place where the bird is perched ;
but it is needless to say that such is not the case, and that this
performance is only a ruse to deceive him as to its whereabouts.
Its vocal powers are not extraordinary, but are superior to those
of the last. The song, so-called, consists of a few notes strung
together, and ending, as usual with the Buntings, with a longer
note ; but having regard to the somewhat uninviting surroundings
of its habitat, it is rather pleasing than otherwise, there being a
certain plaintiveness of tone that accords well with those precincts.
In all its actions it is lively, and has none of the heavy lumpiness,
so to speak, that pertains to the Corn-Bunting. During winter
numbers collect in bands, and seem for the time being to forsake
their natural sphere and roam about the country, visiting stack-
yards and other unlikely places. One New Year's Day lately I was
rather surprised to see a large flock in a district where I never
anticipated encountering them — namely, a wide stretch of high-
lying muirland, midway between Leadburn and the foot of the
Moorfoot Hills, bearing the classic name of Cockmuir. If any
present are acquainted with that delightful spot, they will doubt-
less incline to the belief that the being there at all at such an
inclement season of the year showed a decided want of sense in
both birds and man, as it may safely be affirmed, without fear of
contradiction, that it would be difficult to discover a bleaker or
more " God-forgotten " tract of country in all the lowlands of Scot-
land. They were in company with Yellowhammers, Greenfinches,
and Chaffinches ; but what they were obtaining in the edible way
was not very easy to determine, unless it were the seeds of coarse
grass, or perchance aquatic insects in the bogs. The Eeed-Bunt-
ing may be seen in suitable localities all over Scotland, but would
appear to shift about a good deal from one district to another during
winter — the supply of food, no doubt, regulating its movements.

1884-85-] EdinburgJi Naturalists Field Club. 207

We come now to the Yellow-Bunting, and concerning it little
need be said, as most people are well acquainted with the bird
under its more popular names of Yellow-yite and Yellow-yorlin. It is
one of our commonest, but at the same time most beautiful, species.
Go where you will in the country, you are sure to meet it, except
in very bare and wild districts, where cultivation does not exist
nor trees flourish. But even to these secluded regions it some-
times penetrates. In a previous paper two years ago, I took occa-
sion to mention the superstitions that used to exist in connection
with it, so need not recur to them again, except to express the
hope that the rising generation may be blessed with a little more
sense on that subject than seemed to be possessed by our fore-
fathers, to whom this innocent creature was a positive Mte-noir.
Some quarters abound with it, and none more so than the parish
of Stobo, in Peeblesshire. By Tweedside, and all along the high-
road, which is margined with flne hedges, it is conspicuous in summer
time, as it flits from side to side when disturbed by passers-by, or,
taking up its stance on some prominent twig or neighbouring tree,
it essays to execute the ever-recurring notes that pass muster with
it for song. The sad character of the chant is in reality its only
merit, and although monotonous to a degree, it somehow strikes
upon one's sense of hearing with a pleasing effect ; and if, as an
adjunct, the day be warm and bright, it has a tendency to increase
in us that soothing sort of lethargy that seems to take possession
of one's frame when in the open air on a genial summer day. Its
abundance is apt to cause its being overlooked by the generality
of folks, but among our commoner native birds we can pretend to
few that surpass it in quiet beauty of plumage, which, without
being too gaudy, has yet enough of brightness in its component
parts to make it an object worthy our notice. A parallel instance
to this might be given in the case of the ChafSnch, or, to descend
lower in the scale, in that of the House-Sparrow. An old male of
the latter species is by no means so despicable in his pure country
garb as his sooty and saucy relation in our large cities : in fact,
under those different conditions they hardly look like the same
bird. When seated, the Yellowhammer has a habit of shaking
its tail up and down, not from side to side, as is the ordinary
practice of other birds, and at the same time utters a sharp, harsh
note, which would appear to indicate that although seemingly occu-
pied solely in enjoying itself, it has a quick eye to detect danger, as
well as for the main chance, its lucky numeral on those occasions,
like that of the human order, being '' Number One." The adult
males, from their extra colouring, are easily distinguished from the
females ; but the young cocks at first bear a strong resemblance
to the old hens, until, in the spring succeeding that in which they
were hatched, the pure yellow of the head and breast becomes so

208 Transactions of the [Sess.

prominent as to prevent confusion between the sexes. The curious
scribbled q^^ is unfortunately too well-known an object to every
bird-nesting youth. The old but now almost obsolete idea of the
origin of these strange markings is founded, according to Yarrell
and other naturalists, upon the belief that his Satanic majesty —
in a fit of unwonted generosity, no doubt — presents the Yellow-
Bunting every May with half a drop of his own blood, and hence
the dark-purple streaks on the Q.g^. To comment upon such
idiotic nonsense would, of course, be waste of time. The nest is
placed on, or very near, the ground ; but instances have occurred
when the usual order of things has been departed from — the most
singular of which that I am personally aware of being lately com-
municated to me by a friend, Mr John Thomson of Stobo, Peebles-
shire. The following is a sentence from his letter; "Several
years ago I found a Yellowhammer's nest built in a stack of oat-
straw in the stackyard here [Stobo], containing four or five eggs :
the outer material of the nest was all of straw, to assimilate with
its surroundings." It is not unusual for birds to accommodate
themselves to existing circumstances where their more natural
habitats cannot readily be procured, but this was a case where their
ordinary sites were easily attainable, and on that account the choice
of situation was all the more exceptional and interesting. The
same gentleman also mentions seeing upwards of thirty feeding
together in a field during winter, no other species being near.
This, however, is not so worthy of record as his remark about the
nest, although he is correct in saying that, while gregarious, they
almost always mix with other birds, such as Greenfinches, Shilfas,
&c., and rarely appear in such numbers entirely by themselves.

The last and most important on our list is the Snow-Bunting.
This most attractive species is a migrant, and visits our islands
during winter, leaving latitudes in and near the Arctic Circle
for that purpose. Instances have been recorded of its remaining
to nest in this country, but only in mountain solitudes such as the
Grampians and similar elevated ranges ; and though it is quite
possible that some few are constant residents in Scotland, these
undoubtedly form the exception, and not the rule. Desultory
examples occur almost every summer, and a communication has
lately reached me from a friend who observed a pair in June on
Craig Na, a jorecipitous rocky hill in Glen Urquhart, Inverness-
shire ; but though convinced they were breeding, he could
not discover the nest. During winters of unusual severity, im-
mense flocks descend on the sea-shores, and scatter in bands over
the muirs and upland districts. These bands again divide into
small parties, and may be seen hunting about the same localities,
until the occurrence of a sudden storm causes them to reunite, and
descend to the verge of cultivation in the hope of finding a supply

1884-85.] EdinbiiVgJi Naturalists' Field Cbib. 209

of food, which the deep snow on the hills denies to them for tlie
time being. Single birds and p.airs may be noticed on those
occasions in the low grounds, quite close to houses, and also in
farm-yards, hunger having forced them from their ordinary haunts
to make common cause with SpaiTows and suchlike — a levelling
of rank that suggests a union of patricians and plebs. Dui-ing
the very severe storm of January 1881, a friend and myself noticed
a pair feeding on the road at the end of the Windy-Goul nearest
Duddingston. They seemed devoid of all fear, and not to be the
least embarrassed by the numbers of people constantly passing
and repassing, but continued picking up something from amongst
the snow on the road — most likely grain that had fallen out of the
nose-bags of cab-horses, of whom, as the loch was "bearing," there
had been a good many during the week conveying parties to the
skating. The true sphere in which to observe the Snow-Buntings
in their glory is on the wild and lonesome Highland muirs — those
dreary solitudes which during winter are wellnigh devoid of other
bird life, and which are as destitute of human beings. To one
who has penetrated to such scenes, and experienced the oppressive
stillness and desolation that pertains to them, a flock of Snow-
Buntings comes as a sudden relief to the depression begotten by
the surroundings. The intense enjoyment with which they seem
to welcome the icy gusts that blow along the heights has some-
thing infectious in its character, and rouses in the beholder a
species of excitement that defies the cold and disagreeableness of
the situation, which at another time would be simply intolerable.
As blast follows blast, they fly from point to point in a compact
mass, never at any great height above the ground ; and on the
occasion of a lull, down they settle on the ground, to be again set
in motion by the recurrence of the gale. Their mode of squatting
is most abrupt, and so sudden as to have no appearance of any
preconcerted arrangement on the part of the birds, although such
can hardly be the case, as the entire flock collapse so unitedly at
one and the same moment, as sufficiently to disabuse our minds of
any such conclusion. They circle round and round with the most
eccentric gyrations, striking off" at a tangent, only to double back
when least expected — presenting at one moment a brown surface
to the eye, from the backs being most prominent, but at the angle
of turning the colour changes instantaneously to that of pure
white, consequent on the lower parts being exposed as they veer
round. While engaged in these evolutions they chirp to each
other in clear sweet notes, that are much more musical than any
produced by the three afore-mentioned species ; but although the
males are said to soar somewhat higher in the scale of melody
during summer time, yet, so far as this country is concerned, these
few chirps may practically be said to embrace their entire repertoire.

210 Transactions of the [Sess.

Unlike mankind, tlie blinding snow-drift has apparently no terrors
for them ; and at those dismal moments when the bewildered
traveller curses his ill-luck, and heartily wishes he had never left
the safety of his cheery fireside, the Snow-Bunting seems happier
and more lively than at any other timQ, A favourite resort after
a storm is one of those upland crofts which can boast of a stack
or two of corn ; and in such spots they may be seen alighting in a
flock, sometimes on the stacks, or on the ground close by, often
clinging to the sides of the former after the manner of Sparrows, and
no doubt doing their best to diminish the already too scanty stock
of the crofter by swallowing his grain. On the average, however,
they do not consume so much of the latter commodity as do the
other Buntings, grass-seeds forming their chief food— oats and
suchlike being only resorted to as a special x>iece de resistance
when their usual viand fails them. The plumage to which we in
Scotland are most accustomed is of a reddish-brown chestnut
colour in the upper parts, beautifully diversified by darker feathers,
while the under portions are chiefly white, with a brownish band
across the chest, much more marked in the male than in the
female. The tail and wings, the latter rather long and pointed,
are composed of pure white and dark-brown feathers, almost black
in some cases, the former showing to most advantage during flight,
or when the bird first alights.

A great deal might be written concerning this species. Its
beauty of plumage ; its welcome arrival at a season when bird-life
is, in comparison with summer, almost nil ; its friendly and harm-
less nature, — all these might be enlarged upon with advantage :
but as time would not permit of that, allow me to conclude with
the remark, that should any one, possessing the requisite amount
of interest in ornithology, ever have the chance of visiting the
Snowflake in its happy hunting-grounds, let me adjure him to
permit no preconceived ideas of cold, danger, or physical exertion
to interfere with that opportunity, as the pleasure derived from a
near prospect of the birds will be ample recompence for any dis-
comfort experienced while in their quest.

(Stuffed specimens were exhibited of the four Buuting.s above described. )

1884-85-] Edinburgh Naturalists' Field Clit-b. 211

v.— THE H YMENOM YGE TES.

By Mr A. B. STEELE.

(Read Dec. 26, 1SS4.)

The Hymenomycetes, of which our common Mushroom may be
taken as a type, belong to the primary division Sporifen^e, or
spore-bearers, of the order Fungi. By their complexity of organi-
sation and economic value, they form the most important of the
six families of this order. Although they occupy a very humble
rank in the scale of organised existence, possessing none of the
foliaceous or floral appendages of the pha^nogams, yet they are
remarkable for their strangeness of form and beauty and variety
of colour. Their rapidity of growth, as well as their tendency
to a circular form, is extraordinary. The strange j^ower of lumin-
osity in the dark which some species possess still remains a mys-
tery, and must have been a fertile source of superstition in the past.
The change of colour produced when cut or bruised, and the man-
ner in which the wounds are healed, resembling more the char-
acter of animals than of plants, are striking phenomena among
species of this family. They germinate without cotyledons ; and
being without chlorophyll, they cannot decompose carbonic acid, and
accordingly take up their nourishment from organic compounds.
They exhale carbonic dioxide and inhale oxygen, like animals.
No sexual organs, however, have been definitively discovered in
these plants. Though comparatively simple in structure, they
possess organs more or less complex. Most of them are com-
posed of a mycelium or vegetative structure, a volva, ring, stem,
pileus, and hymenium or fructifying structure bearing spores.
Spores are to Fungi what the seed is in vegetables of a higher
order. They are the reproductive organs. They are so minute
that they cannot be seen with the naked eye ; and their number
is so vast at a certain period of a Mushroom's life, as to make
it appear as if their union formed the whole hymenium, which
is found then covered with a fine dust resembling the pollen
of flowers. The spores, so long as they are adherent to the
hymenium, are free, and supported by filaments which rest on
small projecting bodies called basidia. At maturity the basidia
project at the surface of the hymenium. Each basidium is
composed of a single cell, round, ovoid, or elongated, which
bears at its summit one or several filaments called spicules
or sterigmata, at the extremity of each of which is a single
spore. (This was discovered in the species Coprinus comatus
as far back as 1780.) Each basidium bears four filaments or sterig-

212 Transactions of the [Sess.

mata, and each sterigma a spore. This number varies in some
genera. Besides basidia, there may be noticed at the fructi-
ferous surface of Mushrooms projecting cells, round, oval, or elon-
gated, which are called cystidia or antheridia. The latter name
has been given to them by botanists, who look upon them as
organs destined to fertilise the spores and perform the role of
anthers in phtenogams. The spores can be seen with the naked
eye when they are accumulated in great numbers on the same
surface. This is managed by placing the fructiferous surface of
a Mushroom on a glass or piece of paper : after some hours lift
the plant, and the place will be found stained by a dusty matter
entirely composed of spores. Agarics and Boleti leave traces of
a very exact drawing of the fruitful surface. It requires millions
of these minute bodies to cover the surface of a square inch.
Single spores are so small as to escape the sense of touch, but
when abundant they have the feeling of fine dust. They are
composed of a single very delicate cell containing a fluid holding
granulations in suspension. They are oval, elliptic, or spherical
in shape, according to the species. In most Mushrooms they are
smooth. Whether the envelope of the spore is simple or com-
pound is still in doubt. Spores are of various colours, and on
this fact Fries founded his jorincipal subdivisions of the Agarics.
In the Coprini the young spores are roseate or ashy grey, turn-
ing at maturity to a deep black. The gills follow their mode
of coloration. The colour of the hymenium, however, is not de-
pendent on the spores, several Agarics having the gills coloured
and the spores white. Spores of certain species have a peculiar
taste and colour.

Mushrooms have been classed as agamic plants : some botanists,
however, assert that they have discovered male and female organs.
The cystidia or antheridia — seen only in the higher Fungi — are
supposed to be male organs ; but as nothing has been discovered
in them resembling either pollen or the liquor contained in the
grains of pollen, it is improbable that these bodies are organs of
fecundation. They are not arranged like stamens, nor as the spores
themselves are in the basidia. They are awanting, too, in a great
-many species. "From the researches of Professor Oersted on
Agaricus variabilis, it appears," says Carpenter, " that the true
generative process in the Agarics and their allies is carried on in
the mycelium, and that which has hitherto been considered as their
fructification is really a mass of gemmas like the urns in Mosses
and the thecaa of Ferns, which are products of the sexual union
which takes place in the earlier stages of these plants." It would
seem, therefore, that the discovery of the process by which the spore
is fertilised remains yet to be made. Germination begins in the
sj)ores of some species immediately after quitting the sporophore.

1884-85.] Edinburgh Naturalists' Field Club. 213

In Agarics find Polypori growth does not start till some time after
their emission. A time of rest seems necessary before germination
begins to operate, and if placed in suitable conditions, vegetation
is then not slow to show itself. We see at first, coming from one
or two projections opposite to the spore, a filament or radicle, which
soon divides and multiplies into branches more or less numerous,
and almost invariably white. These cross each other, intermingle,
and form what is called mycelium, or white of Mushroom. On the
mycelium there soon appears, when the conditions are favourable,
the Mushroom proper, which, from its birth, has generally a globu-
lar or ovoid form, but as it increases it gradually assumes the form
which characterises the species to which it belongs. The embryo
Mushroom is surrounded with a membranous or hairy covering,
which afterwards disappears. One or two membranes more or less
persistent, called the volva and ring, protect the young plant till
its complete development. The ring is somewhat similar to the
calyx and petals of the higher plants, and is probably a place of
shelter for the spores, which are perhaps fecundated before they are
detached from the cap. Bulliard says the young Mushroom bursts
through the volva and detaches itself from the ring sometimes with
a noise as loud as that of a pistol. Cold destroys neither mycelium
nor spores, and a dry heat of upwards of 100^ does not kill the
germinating faculty of the spores of most species. Mycelium and
spores remain often latent for years until circumstances intervene to
favour their development. Kept in a dry spot, the spawn retains
its vegetative property for a long period. Gardeners state that
they have kept it for several years, and then put it in beds, and
quantities of Mushrooms have been produced. When once the
Mushroom, however, has begun to develop, either intense cold or
heat kills it. Very few species of fleshy consistence can resist the
frosts of winter or the ardent heat of a dry summer. Mushrooms
require a degree of temperature and moisture of certain definite
limits in order to develop, and germination takes place only at
fixed times of the year. Spores placed in unfavourable conditions
do not germinate while these continue. In my garden the tufted
Agaric has sprung up every autumn successively for the last five
years, but this year germination has failed, owing perhaps to the
dryness of the season.

Mushrooms are composed of interlaced fibres forming a net-like
tissue, whose round or elongated cells communicate with external
agents by means of minute pores. By these absorption and ex-
halation are performed. They have no proper vessels, like ph;\?no-
gams, for the circulation of sap. In these cells, of which the whole
plant is composed, the nutritive fluids are contained, whose circu-
lation, almost insensible, is performed by a sort of capillary attrac-
tion. The fluids penetrate by endosmose and are expelled by

214 Transactions of the [Sess.

exosmose. By tlie double process of absorption and elimination
the phenomena of nutrition, assimilation, growth, and by-and-by
of reproduction, are accomplished. At maturity the plant gives
forth seeds like other vegetables, and their emission immediately
arrests development. Some species arrive at maturity in a few-
hours. Thunderstorms favour their appearance. Mushrooms being
found after such storms in places where there were no traces of
them the day before. Coprini are very ephemeral, withering after
a day's existence. Fleshy species last from six to twelve days, and
some of the Polypori live for several years.

In discriminating species, the chief points to be attended to are
the form of the gills, their mode of attachment to the stem, their
colour, and more especially the colour of the spores. The colour
of the pileus, the form and characteristics of the stem, are so
variable often in the same species as to mislead and perplex the
student. The preservation, too, of Fungi is exceedingly difficult —
some fade so rapidly, melting almost before your eyes. Even the
tough species, when cut into sections and dried, become unrecog-
nisable in a few weeks. A fairly satisfactory plan of preserving
the beauty of these interesting plants (which I hit upon rather
late, however, for the most of my collection this autumn) is to dip
them in melted paraffin. Care must be taken not to allow the
paraffin to get too hot, and so injure the specimens by burning
them. To get a thin and equal coating all over your specimen,
the process must be carefully done. Some specimens now exhib-
ited have been preserved in this manner for about two months,
and if kept in a dry spot, it is reasonable to expect that they will
remain in this condition for years.

This autumn I collected nearly forty species round Edinburgh.
In the Meadows I gathered Coprinus comestus, Agaricus campestris,
A. cristatus, A. fcenisecii, and A. rimosus. On Arthur's Seat I found,
besides, A. albocyaneus, A. umbelliferus, A. dealbatus, A. ceraceus,
Hygrophorus psittacinus, Lepiota excoriatus, and Boletus luteus.
In Corstorphine Woods, Agaricus fascicularis, A. cinnamomeus, A.
variabilis, A. dryophilus, A. semiglobatus, A. radicatus, Hygropho-
rus conicus, H. virgineus, and Lepiota granulosus. In Greyfriars'
Churchyard I got Coprinus micaceus and Agaricus cortiles ; and
in gardens and nurseries in town I found Coprinus aliamentarius,
Agaricus pratensis, A. velutipes, and Lactarius rufus, besides
others I have not been able to identify.

The uses of the Hymenomycetes, though perhaps not of great
importance, are both numerous and varied. Many species of this
family are employed as food. The Dutch, who think that the
devil gets the best of everything in this world, call them the
devil's bread. Only one species, Agaricus campestris, the common
Mushroom, is looked upon with favour in this country, and yet it is

1884-85.] Edinburgh Naturalists' Field Club. 215

the only edible one that is rejected in Italy. Three varieties of this
Mushroom are cultivated in France — the white, grey, and blonde.
The white is preferred, the blonde not being considered so tender,
and having less perfume. The grey has a stronger taste, but
blackens sauces. The finest variety of this species, however, is a
native of the Swan Eiver district, Australia. Another variety,
Agaricus pratensis, is not quite so good as the common Mush-
room. All these yield good ketchup. A. prunulus — the Mouceron
of the French, and the origin of our word "Mushroom" — is much
prized in Rome. It is dried and sold through Italy as " Funghi
di Genoa." A. deliciosus, the Orange-milk Agaric, is as good as
its name implies. A. procerus, the Parasol Mushroom, or Snake
Agaric, is a favourite with mycophagists, and yields the finest
ketchup. This and another allied species, A. rachodes, are sold
together indiscriminately in the London markets. A. comatus,
very plentiful at our doors, is eaten when young, and used for
making ketchup. Lactarius volunum, the Warden-pear Agaric, and
the " Brotllng " of the Germans, is very common in the Highlands,
and resembles lamb's kidney in taste, being very delicious even
when eaten raw. Cantharellus cibarius or Chanterelle, so called
from its fancied resemblance to a cock when crowing, is the finest
of all the esculent Fungi. It smells like ripe Apricots, and is
served as a recherche dish at the Freemasons' Tavern on high
festivals. Boletus edulis is cut in thin slices, and sold in the chief
towns on the Continent in every shop where meal and peas are
sold. It is believed to be the Smilus of the Romans, who got it
from Bithynia. It resembles the taste of our common Mushroom,
and is still more delicate. In Hungary it is made into soup when
fresh, and the Russians dry and string it for winter use. Hydnum
repandum, the Vegetable Oyster, is common in woods. When
eaten raw, it is peppery to the taste, but when cooked is much
prized. It has the flavour of oysters when stewed. It is also
dried for winter use. Clavaria coralloides, Hercules' Club, is also
good eating. Indeed, all the Clavaria^ are edible. Mrs Hussey
relates that two species of Russula9 — heterophT/Uiis and vescus —
were not only relished but easily digested by a consumptive
patient who was scarcely able to endure food of any kind, but who
partook of them as often as found during the whole season. Vit-
tselini, in his ' Funghi Mangerecci,' mentions Russula heterophylla
as being more delicate than the true Orange Mushroom. These
and many others yield excellent food both to rich and poor, and
most of them have their habitats in our immediate neighbourhood.
But there exists a strong prejudice in this country against using
Mushrooms for food, and perhaps its existence is not without
reason. Unskilful collectors are apt to mistake nearly allied,
species, or to gather edible species that are past maturity — for it

2i6 Transactions of the [Sess.

is known that species which are wholesome in the morning may-
become deleterious by the evening. We see examples of the
ignorance displayed in discriminating good from bad species nearly
every season, and unfortunately often attended by most disastrous
results. No later than 7th October last the 'Times' correspon-
dent at Boulogne wrote thus : —

" The cook at a school in the Gironde having gathered a quantity of Mush-
rooms in the vicinity, served them to the boys, thirteen in number, for
breakfast. The whole of them were seized with most violent pains. Several
doctors attended them, but in vain. Eleven of the children have died, and
the rest, with the usher, are lying in a critical condition. In cooking this
treacherous food, it is generally believed that if a silver coin placed in the
same pan is not discoloured, the Mushrooms are wholesome. The test was
resorted to on this occasion, but signally failed. Two little girls were
poisoned at Arras through a similar misadventure ; and a further case took
place near Lyons, when a whole family were attacked — father, mother, and
five children. Two of the children have died, and the remaining sufferers
are in a precarious condition."

Dr Badham proved the silver-spoon test to be useless, as the
kitchen-fire will sometimes extract the deleterious property. A
more general knowledge, therefore, of the esculent Fungi is most
important, and would tend not only to prevent such accidents in
the future, but to increase a substantial food-supply. In many
countries of Europe they are the only food-supply of the peasants
during a part of the year ; and in Terra del Fuego, and some dis-
tricts of Australia, they are the staple food of the natives.^ Mush-
rooms have also a place in Materia medica. The Polypori are used
in the cure of phthisis and consumption, and as styptics ; and also
as a moxa by the Laplanders, whose dandies perfume themselves
with the scent of Agaricus odorus. In semi-barbarous countries
they are still believed to act as aphrodisiacs. In the industrial
arts they claim some attention. Prussian blue and prussic acid
are obtained from Mushrooms ; Polyporus sulphureus is used for
dyeing ; Agaricus atramentarius for making ink ; Polyporus fomen-
tarius in the manufacture of amadou or German tinder, which,
before water-beds were invented, had superseded the chamois-
leather as a more elastic mattress for invalids. It is still manu-

1

The following are the chief constituents of Mushrooms

In 100 parts.

111

oz.

I lb.
gr.

Water, ....

90.0

14

175

Albuminoids, &c.,

5.0

0

350

Carbo-hydrates, &c..

3.8

0

266

Fat,

0.7

0

49

Mineral matter,

0.5

0

35

100.0 16 0

1884-85.] Edinhirgh Naturalists' Field Club. 217

factured into warm winter hats and chest-protectors. The most
fashionable Ukus worn by the Fijian ladies are made of a Fungus
— probably one of the Sapballs. Polyporus betulinus, when cut
into strips and rubbed with pumice-stone, is made into razor-
strops. Polyporus ignarius is pounded and used as snuff by the
Ostyacks on the Obi. Some species are put to strange uses. In
Kamtschatka and Corea, Agaricus muscarius, or False-orange or Fly
Agaric, is decocted with the runners of Epilobium angustifolium,
or the berries of Vaccinium uliginosum, and made into a highly in-
toxicating liquor, Greville says that the most powerful effect is
produced by drying this Fungus and swallowing it without masti-
cation, Tlie natives personify this Fungus, and allege that they
are only obeying its behests when they commit suicide or other
crimes under its influence. Monkhamorr, a strong drink used by
the Russian peasants, is also extracted from this Mushroom ; and
among the Tartars this drink is an element in their worship. Poly-
porus sacer is worshipped in New Guinea and the west coast of
Africa, Many of them are also highly destructive. Polyporus
destructor, the common Dry-rot Fungus, known in Germany as
Hausschioamm, and the Meruleus lachrymans in this country, are
well known. The spawn diffuses itself through the substance of
the timber, and rapidly destroys it. At the Forestry Exhibition
held in Edinburgh this summer, seven or eight edible species of
Fungi from Japan were exhibited, and a large Fungus collection
by the natives of British Guiana, with the note that this is entirely
a new study in British Guiana.

Before concluding, I should like to draw attention to the im-
portance given to this branch of botany by other Field Clubs. The
Essex Field Club have yearly forays for Fungi, and most interest-
ing excursions they seem to be. At their October excursion this
year thirty new species were found in the same localities that had
been gone over carefully the previous season. The Woolhope
Field Club had also their Fungus excursion in the beginning of
November last, and found many very interesting kinds, although the
past dry summer had not been favourable to their growth. The
members dined together afterwards, and partook of Hydnum re-
pandum and Cantharellus cibarius, both of which were generally
appreciated. These facts show the increasing importance attached
to this branch of Natural History, and ought to convince us as a
Field Club of the necessity of making at least one excursion every
season for the prosecution of the study of Fungi.

2i8 Transactions of tJie [Sess.

VI.— ON YEJVS, WITH SPECIAL REFEBENGE TO THE

PORTING ALL YEW.

By Mr JOHN LINDSAY.

{Read Jan. 29, 1885.)

The Yew tribe (Taxinese) lias been relegated by systematic botan-
ists to a sub-order of the Coniferge. The Common Yew [Taxus
haccata) belongs to the Dioecia Monadelphia of the Linneean system.
The leaves are in two rows, dark shining-green above, mnch paler
below ; branches dense and spreading ; branchlets slender and
drooping ; male catkin axillary ; female cone inconspicuous, con-
sisting of a few minute scales, with a terminal, erect ovule on a
fleshy disc, which enlarges into a scarlet fleshy cup containing a
single brown oval seed. The " solitary Yew" is a tree familiar to
all, and is found distributed throughout Europe, growing at various
elevations up to 4000 feet. The stem is short and straight ; the
head pointed or pyramidal-shaped until the tree begins to decay,
when it presents a rounded appearance. The leaves, as is well
known, are poisonous to cattle browsing on them ; and several
cases are also on record of children having died from their effects,
when administered as a vermifuge. It is said, however, that if
cattle are accustomed to the use of the leaves, by a small quantity
being mixed in their food, they can by-and-by partake of them
alone with impunity. The seed contained in tlie scarlet disc is
also reputed to possess poisonous properties ; but the cup itself is
sweet and innocuous, children being very fond of plucking and
eating this bright-red berry. No insect subsists on any part of the
Yew except the fleshy cup, the sweetness of which attracts Wasps
and like visitants. The wood of the Yew is not subject to insect
depredations, and is very hard, flexible, and of great durability. It
is a common saying, in some parts of England, that a Yew post will
outlast an iron one ; and the wood has been found in bogs in Ire-
land, where it may have lain for centuries, yet remaining as fresh
and sound as when growing in full vigour. It is a very fine-grained
wood, as many as 280 annual rings, according to Loudon, being
sometimes found in a piece not more than twenty inches in diameter.
As will be noticed presently, it was at one time in much request
for bows ; and by a statute of King Henry VIII. it was enacted
that " bowyers " should import the wood for the purpose of making
the best bows, owing to the difficulty of procuring it at home in
sufficient lengths or quantities for that purpose. The Yew does
not grow very rapidly, but what it lacks in this respect is amply
compensated for by the great age which in many cases it attains.

1S84-85.] EdinburgJi Naturalists' Field Club. 219

At one time this tree, as well as the Holly, was often found in
gardens clipped into the fantastic geometrical shapes which the
fashion of the day demanded. Evelyn gives a long and melancholy
list of the dangerous properties of the Yew, some of which, however,
he frankly says he does not believe ; yet he quaintly and cautiously
adds : " To prevent all funest accidents, I commend the tree only
for the usefulness of the timber, and hortulan ornament." The
Irish Yew {Taxus haccata fastigiata) is a well-known native variety,
first found near Florence Court, in Ireland. That the common Yew
is a native may surely be conceded, and yet, strangely enough,
this has sometimes been disputed, though it is undoubtedly the
oldest tree found in Britain. A safe rule has been laid down by an
eminent forester, that " all those trees which propagate themselves
freely from seed without our agency, and which are known to have
existed in our country before the earliest records, are indigenous to
it." The Yew fulfils both of these conditions. Many trees are
found, for instance — especially in the north of England — growing
in inaccessible places, where they must of necessity have been of
spontaneous growth. That it has existed " before the earliest
records " will appear in the sequel, as we proceed to speak more
particularly of what is known as the Fortingall Yew.

Amongst the numerous Yew-trees in this country which are
noteworthy because of their appearance or antiquity, the well-
known specimen still growing in the churchyard at Fortingall,
Perthshire, is certainly the most remarkable. The following,
though of less note, are yet interesting, either because of their vast
proportions, their age, or their historical associations. In the New
Forest, as well as in the Forest of Dean, a nximber of Yews still
survive whose youth stretches back to the time of William the
Conqueror. In Tisbury Churchyard, Dorsetshire, a rather unique
specimen is found, its trunk being 37 feet in circumference, the
interior hollow, and with a rustic gate to admit visitors. In Buck-
land Churchyard, near Dover, there is another with a trunk 24 feet
in circumference, which presents a strange appearance from the
contorted shape it has assumed while growing. On the estate of
the Marquess of Bath, in Wiltshire, there is a grand specimen, known
to be upwards of 1000 years old, which is 50 feet high, and with a
head 50 feet in diameter. The Brabourne Yew, in Kent, is de-
scribed in Evelyn's 'Silva' (16G5) as a gigantic ruin, with a trunk
60 feet in circumference ; but of this monster growth not a vestige
is now remaining. A very large Yew is growing at Inchbrakie,
Crieff, which is said to have on one occasion concealed in its
branches the Marquess of Montrose. In the county of East
Lothian there are two very fine Yews still thriving in a green old
age — viz., one at Whittinghame and the other at Ormiston Hall :
besides the attraction of their stately proportions, these Yews are

220

Transactions of the [Sess.

both historically interesting, for it has been transmitted down to

our own times that it was within the sombre enclosure of the former

that the Darnley plot was hatched ; while the latter, according to

tradition, at one time accommodated a congregation of several

hundreds under the arching canopy of its branches, when John

Knox was the preacher. There are, besides, the historic English

Yews of Fountains Abbey, Gresford, Anker wyke, and Darleydale,

described by Loudon, which are all undoubtedly over 1000 years

old. But every one of these trees, and many others which might

be mentioned, must give place to the Fortingall Yew. " This

Yew," in the words of the late Professor Christison (to whom it was

an object of great interest), " stands within the churchyard, four

miles by road above the confluence of the Tay and Lyon, and about

400 feet above sea-level, in a valley very favoiirable to tree life. It

is quite within the churchyard, in a walled enclosure thkty-three

feet by twenty. But depredation has thus not been altogether

prevented. Two railed openings and a railed gate allow inspection

from outside of a mass of vegetation so confused, that the whole

enclosure seems simply full of young Yews and vigorous spray.^ It

is only by brushing through this mass on obtaining entrance into

the interior, and not easily even then, that an adequate idea can

be formed of what is stiU extant of the ancient tree." This tree

was behoved by De CandoUe to be " possibly the most venerable

specimen of vegetation in Europe," and this celebrated botanist

estimated its age as over 2500 years ; while Sir Kobert Christison

made a most minute and painstaking inquiry as to the growth of

the Yew and other trees at various ages, in order to be able to

arrive at an approximate estimate of the age of this particular tree.

The result of his labours will be noted by-and-by, when we have

o-lanced at the various published accounts of former visitors.

Though the FortingaU Yew is so noteworthy, there does not
appear to be any very early notice of it. One would have ex-
pected to find it mentioned in the ' Black Book of Taymouth ' ; but
though severe storms and other natural phenomena are there duly
chronicled, this wonderful curiosity is not once alluded to by the
compilers — at least, in the published portions of the MS. Nor does
Evelyn, in his ' Silva,' refer to any Scottish trees whatever, though
he mentions several ancient Yews : all his specimens are EngHsh.
The early troubles of Scotland may in part account for such paucity
of scientific observation ; while as regards the Highlands, up to
a comparatively recent period this part of the kingdom was re-
garded by Southrons as a region full of frightful mountains and
precipices, and inhabited by savages no less frightful. It may,
therefore, have been considered rather a bold adventure — the Great
Magician not having yet arisen — when in 1768 the Honourable
Daines Barrington (the " Judge Barrington " of the Welsh Bench)

1 8 84- S 5-] Edinburgh Naturalists' Field Club. 221

penetrated into the recesses of the Highlands, and visited Grlenlyon
in order to inspect the ancient Yew of Fortingall. This gentleman
reported in the 'Eoyal Society Transactions' in 1769 that he had
"measm-ed the circumference of this Yew twice," and found it to
be 52 feet. Next year Barrington was followed by the well-known
Welsh naturalist and antiquarian, Thomas Pennant, who then made
his " first tour in Scotland " ; and it may be remembered — as noticed
b}^ our President in his inaugural address this session — that it was
to these two gentlemen the Rev. Gilbert White inscribed the letters
which form the ' Natural History of Selborne.' Pennant merely
notices the fact of the existence of the tree, states its circumfer-
ence to be 56 1 feet, and gives a small drawing of it. After the
notice of this drawing at the beginning of his book, he adds : " The
middle part is now decayed to the ground, but within memory was
united to the height of three feet,— Captain Campbell of Glen Lyon
having assured me that when a boy he has often climbed over, or
rode on, the then connecting part." Three years later (in 1772)
Pennant again visited Scotland, accompanied by Dr Lightfoot, who
founded his ' Flora Scotica ' on the material furnished by this tour.
Though in the account of this second journey he supplies some
gossip about Yew-trees in general, nothing is added by Pennant to
his former account of the Yew at Fortingall, which he again in-
spected. In 1785 the wall was built round it by the father of
Dr Irvine of Pitlochry ; and the worthy Doctor informed Professor
Christison tliat his mother had often told him that when she was
a girl — viz., about 1785 — she "could with diflSculty squeeze
through the gajD." The volume concerning Perthshire in the old
* Statistical Account of Scotland,' which appeared in 1792, only
furnishes us with the information that the Fortingall Yew is " a
very remarkable tree " ! We are thus brought down to 1822, when
Strutt published a splendid figure of the tree in a Supplement to
his ' Silva Britannica,' but with the gap so large that a funeral is
in the act of passing through it — a clergyman walking in front
reading the burial service, and a straggling company following
behind the bier. It is added that this mode of entrance into the
churchyard for funerals, by passing through the gap, was the
usual practice, and this has been followed by Loudon, who repeats
the story. Yet, as we have just seen, an eight-feet wall was built
round the tree thirty-seven years before, when the gap was ex-
tremely small ; and it may safely be concluded that funeral pro-
cessions never took such a route. In 1833 the late Mr Patrick
Neill visited Glenlyon, and wrote a minute account of the tree for
the ' Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal.' He mentions that
" large arms had been removed, and even masses of the trunk
carried off, to make drinking-cups and other curiosities." It is
added, however, that " happi]y further depredations have been pre-

VOL. I. Q

222 Transactions of the [Sess,

vented by means of an iron rail which now surrounds the sacred
object." We now come to the period when the ' New Statistical
Account of Scotland' was written. The notice here given in 1838
by the Rev. Robert Macdonald, the late minister of the parish,
carries the history of this Yew back to a century earlier. He
says : " At the commencement of my incumbency, 32 years ago"
—that is, in 1806 — " there lived in the village of Kirktown a man
of the name of Donald Robertson, then aged upwards of 80 years,
who declared that when a boy going to school" — say in 1736,
when Donald would be ten years of age — " he could hardly enter
between the two parts " — this being just what Dr Irvine's mother
said fifty years later. " Now a coach-and-four," he adds, " might
pass between them ; and the dilapidation was partly occasioned by
the boys of the village kindling their fire of Bealltuinn at its root.
It is now from 52 to 56 feet in circumference." It is to be premised
that the boys climbed over the enclosure to kindle their Beltane
fire ; but an eight-feet wall to a young Celt would not be an insur-
mountable difficulty.

Lastly, we come to the observations of Sir Robert Christison,
as given in the 'Transactions of the Botanical Society' for 1879,
and to which we would refer any who may wish fuller information
as to the increment of Yews at different ages, with proper systems
of measurement, &c. The Professor's observations are so minute
and explicit — being also accompanied by drawings of the tree and
a ground-plan of the enclosure — that in after-ages, if the tree still
survives, there can be no difficulty in drawing comparisons as to
its relative conditions. As we have said. Sir Robert's main object
was to discover the probable age of the tree, and the conclusion
arrived at by him is so astounding that we give it in his own
words. He says : '' The tree, in the first place, may be assumed
to have attained a girth of 22 feet in a thousand years. After that
age, no information yet got warrants a rate of more than an inch
in 35 years. Taking the lowest measurement of Barrington at 52
feet, the difference will thus add 2000 years to the age of the
Fortingall Yew, making it in all 3000 years old when measured
in 1768-69. The result is startling, but not so improbable as may
at first sight be thought, if it be considered that several English
Yews of scarcely half the girth are, not without good reason, held
to surpass materially a thousand years of age, yet still appear to
be in vigorous health, and steadily increasing ; and that upwards
of 3000 rings have been actually counted on the stump-surface of
a Californian Sequoia." This is the result, then, of Professor Chris-
tison's laborious and careful measurements — viz., that the Fortin-
gall Yew has now attained the truly venerable age of 3117 years !
It is therefore held to be proved that the Yew is indigenous, see-
ing it thus existed in our country " before the earliest records." It

1884-85.] Edinburgh Naturalists' Field Club. 223

must be added, however, that several authorities believe this esti-
mate to be excessive. The following remarks on the growth and
decay of Yews, and the probable age of the Fortingall Yew, have
been courteously contributed by Mr J. Gordon, late forester at
Luss, who was a culJahorateur with Sir Robert Christison during
the investigations of the latter just referred to : —

" The vagaries of the growth of Yew-trees are numerous, and go
far to invalidate the most praiseworthy efforts to evolve a factor
unknown in a particular tree by means of corresponding well-
known factors in Yews generally. It is so difficult, for instance,
to compute the age of a very old Yew which does not itself afford
ready means for computation, that blame can scarcely be said to
attach to failure. Tlie results of the late Sir Eobert Christison's
labours to compute the probable age of the venerable Yew at
Fortingall, Glenlyon, will have astonished many and convinced a
few. For myself, I feel neither astonished nor convinced, but
consider these results such as must always be expected from a
trained intellect operating upon incomplete data. In the paper
read to the Botanical Society in 1879, Sir Robert gives not the
slightest indication why the Yew at Fortingall decayed from the
top downwards, nor why its trunk exhibited two lunate shells
bearing on their convex sides a crop of living, growing branches.
Nor does he indicate why he preferred to adopt for his purpose the
smaller of two different recorded measurements. It is too evident
that, with the data and methods of Sir Robert, conjoined with an
unaccountable preference for the larger measurement of Pennant,
one could easily add a few centuries to the age which the late
Baronet has ascribed to this tree, provided the actual facts were
not allowed to regulate the argument.

" The manner of its decay seems to prove this tree's manner
of growth in a way not dealt with by Sir Robert. It seems to
have had originally two adjacent separate stems, which coalesced
as growth advanced. These two stems would continue separate at
the top, while forming one undivided trunk near the ground. In
such a case — far from uncommon — the point of divergence of the
coalesced stems is notably prone to generate decay,— a fact regard-
ing -which I am prepared to satisfy the most incredulous, but of
which the bulky literature of this curious old Yew takes no notice.
The accounts of the progressive widening of the gap between the
two shells of trunk are very suggestive. At one time the gap is said
to admit the passage of a boy through it ; at another time a coacli-
and-four could pass through it. Later, the size of the gap has
become so indefinite that Strutt can venture to figure an entire
funeral cortege as in the act of strutting through it ! Now, without
reading between the lines of these various accounts, it is not too
much to state that among the purposes to be served by them,

224 Transactions of the [Sess.

trustworthiness of results computed with measureinents taken
while the tree was in this condition is not for a moment to be
looked for. Suppose, however, we were, with Sir Eobert, to accept
Barrington's 52-feet measurement, the foregoing theory of the
tree's growth would enable us to reduce by fully a third the
enormous age imputed to this Yew by the learned Baronet. The
time may come when occasion to do so will present itself."

The subject of the Fortingall Yew naturally suggests the ques-
tion— which, indeed, has often been asked — Why are Yews so fre-
quently found growing in churchyards ? The ready answer has
usually been given, prompted by the law of association, that they
are thus found because of their funereal appearance : —

" A black Yew gloomed the stagnant air."

But other reasons are not wanting. Thus, it has been affirmed
that as the pagan nations of antiquity in Southern Europe adopted
the Cypress as the emblem of immortality, so in Northern Europe
the Yew had the same symbolic meaning attached to it : —

" Oh, not for thee the glow, the bloom,
Who changest not in any gale,
Nor branding summer suns avail
To touch thy thousand years of gloom. "

Another explanation, of a more utilitarian kind, is that the Yew
was planted thus near the parish butts, which were generally in
the close vicinity of the church, in order to supply wood for mak-
ing bows. It has further been suggested by Sir Thomas Browne,
the well-known author of the ' Eeligio Medici,' that sprigs of Yew
which had been used at funerals might have taken root, and grown
into churchyard trees. It is true that the custom of using Yew-
branches at funerals was an old one ; and of the half-dozen notices
of the Yew by Shakespeare,-^ one of them — that in " Twelfth
Night " (Act II. sc. iv.) — refers to this practice. But the objection
applies to all these various solutions of the problem, that most of
the old trees now found in churchyards were in all probability
planted before the existence of the parish church or burying-
ground ; while the Fortingall Yew, at all events, was a goodly

1 The mention of " Hebenon " or " Hebona " by Shakespeare, Gower,
Spenser, and Marlowe, has given rise to much conjecture as to what " deadly
poison " was meant by these writers. On this point Canon EUacombe says :
' ' The question has lately been very much narrowed and satisfa,ctorily settled
(for the present, certainly, and probably altogether) by Dr Nicholson and the
Rev. W. A. Harrison. These gentlemen have decided that the true reading
is Hebona, and that Hebona is the Yew. Their views are stated at full
length in two exhaustive papers contributed to the New Shakespeare Society,
and published in their Transactions." — ' The Plant-Lore and Garden-Craft of
Shakespeare,' 2d ed. (1884), p. 119.

1884-85.] Edinburgh Naturalists' Field CM. 225

tree before the beginning of the Christian era. The same objec-
tion also applies to a belief mentioned in an old work by Eobert
Turner, dated 1664, and entitled ' Botanologia,' which is yet worth
quoting. The author says : " The Yew is hot and dry, having
such attraction that if planted near a j)lace subject to poysonous
vapours, its very branches will draw and imbibe them. For this
reason it was planted in churchyards, and commonly on the west
side, which was at one time considered full of putrefaction and
gross oleaginous gasses, exhaled from the graves by the setting
sun. . . . Wheresoever it grows," the old botanist adds, " it is
both dangerous and deadly to man and beast : the very lying
under its branches has been found hurtful, yet the growing of it
in churchyards is useful." We thus find that the Yew was early
regarded with a superstitious awe ; but the explanation here given
of its occurrence in churchyards is of couse fanciful, and character-
istic of the times. A very plausible reason which has been urged
is, that Yews were connected with the heathen worship of our
ancestors ; and that, according to the accommodating tactics of the
early Christian Church, of retaining and turning to its own use
what in the older ritual it was found impossible to remove, the
Yew under which the heathen rites were celebrated was permitted
to stand, and a Christian place of worship was built beside it. The
only objection to this theory is, that we have no certain evidence
connecting the Yew with the heathen worship of our island. It is
just possible that, seeing tlie Yew may be regarded as undoubtedly
indigenous to Britain, and was at one time probably far more com-
mon than now, the ancient specimens found in churchyards may
owe their preservation to the accident or design of their having
been enclosed in this sacred place, while many of those scattered
over the face of the country had to succumb to the wasting effects
of time, or to the axe of the woodman. Its reputedly poisonous
properties, too, might often cause it to be levelled ; while its being
dioecious — having staminate and pistillate flowers on different trees
— would tend still further to lessen its numbers, as solitary forms
were left in isolated places. Whatever the reason may be, the fact
remains that many of the ancient Yews still surviving are found
growing in churchyards.

The subject of Yew-trees, as we have seen, is intimately con-
nected with that of archery : indeed, the generic name of the Yew
(Taxus) is in all probability derived from the Greek ro^ov, a bow.
It may therefore be interesting to make a few remarks, in closing,
on the use of bows in our own country during historic times. The
first mention of arcliery in the statute-book is in the latter part of
the twelfth century, during the reign of William the Lion, where it
is explicitly stated that every man, unless mounted, was expected
to have a bow and arrows. In 1319 King Robert the Bruce or-

226 Transactions of the [Sess.

dained " that ilk man haveand the value of ane kow in gudes shall
have ane bow with ane schaife of arrows." The old Yew-trees on
Inch-Lonaig, or " the Island of Yews," in Loch Lomond, are tradi-
tionally said to have been planted at this period by the king's com-
mand, in order to supply wood for future bows ; but none of the
Yews now on the island can be so old, though most of them prob-
ably number centuries. Further, in the earliest Parliament of
King James I. (1424), it was enacted " that all men busk them to
be archers fra they be twelve zeirs of age." It was about this
time that the Scottish Archer - Guard of France, so graphically
described in Sir Walter Scott's novel of ' Quentin Durward,' was
formed. But archery never seems to have taken the firm hold in
Scotland that it possessed in the South ; for by the English bow-
men,—

" Who drew,
And almost joined, the horns of the tough Yew," —

the tide of battle was often turned, and many a victory won. The
early Scottish sovereigns launched frequent denunciations against
football and golf, which had usurped the place of archery in the
affections of the people.^ But the use of the bow as a weapon of
war was soon to cease. Its palmy days in our island extended
from the Norman Conquest to the period when artillery and fire-
arms became general in warfare. Thus in the reign of James V.
there is no mention of archery in the statute-book ; but in the
' Book of Sports ' compiled by King James VI. it is said to be the
king's pleasure " that after the end of divine service, our good
people be not disturbed, letted, or discouraged from any lawful
recreation, such as dancing, either men or women, archery for
men," &c. Shooting at the butts seems thus early to have become
the mere amusement which it still remains to the present day. In
connection with this subject, it may be mentioned that the Eoyal
Company of Archers, in our city, have in their possession two val-
uable Yew-bows, which they received in 1840 from Dr Thomas
Spens. One of these " belonged to Mr Wallace, a member of the
Company, admitted in 1776. On the occasion of the visit of Lord
Aylesford, his Lordship offered Mr Wallace fifty guineas for it, but
did not succeed in tempting him to part with it. . . . The second
bow, which is smaller, Dr Spens declared to be the most beautiful
piece of Yew he had ever seen. It had been presented to his
father, Dr Nathaniel Spens, by an old family in Fife, in whose pos-

session it was."^

We would sum up our subject in the words of old Evelyn.

^ " That fnte-bal and golfe be utterly cried down, and that bow-markes be
maid at ilk parish kirk." — Skene's Scottish Acts of Pari., James II., c. 65.
2 'Hist, of Royal Company of Archers,' p. 208.

1884-85-] Edinburgh Naturalists' Field Club. 227

" Since the use of bows is laid aside," he says, " the propagation of
the Yew is likewise qnite forborne ; but the neglect of it is to be
deplored, seeing that the barrenest grounds, and coldest of our
mountains, might be profitably planted with them." The same
state of matters still exists as in the time of Charles 11. , for Yews
are seldom planted for their timber, though many of the dwarf and
shrubby varieties are grown for ornamental purposes. Some of
these varieties are beautiful plants, with bright golden-green foli-
age, and very unlike the grim, funereal-looking parent. It may
be added that there is a splendid collection of Yews in the Royal
Botanic Garden of our city. The " folk-lore " of the Yew, includ-
ing the various superstitions connected with it, and the numerous
references to it in the poets, though very enticing, is too wide a
subject to enter on at present. It is hoped that what has already
been said has not been altogether without interest.

[The Secretary exhibited a piece of wood from the Fortingall Yew ; and
the Curator of the Koyal Botanic Garden kindly furnished specimens of the
most distinct and striking varieties of the Yew, in iUustration of the above
paper.]

VII.-WHO WERE THE EARLY INHABITANTS OF THE
SHELL - MO UNI) NAMED CAISTEAL - NAN - GILLEAN,
ON ORONSAY?

By Mr SYMINGTON GRIEVE.

{Bead Jan. 29, 1885.)

It was our good fortune, during the summer of 1881, to discover
that a supposed tumulus on the island of Oronsay was in reality
an ancient shell-mound. The name of this shell-mound is Caisteal-
nan-Gillean, which means " the castle of the servants or gillies,"
and we have been assured that the deposits found here indicate
that they belong to the Iron Age. As this term has rather a
wide meaning, it may not be uninteresting if we endeavour to
obtain some light as to who were the inhabitants of this place
by an examination of the references by the early historians to
Celtic Scotland, though the subject differs somewhat from those
usually brought under our notice at these meetings.

We have tried in vain to obtain any thoroughly reliable infor-
mation regarding the earliest inhabitants of the Hebrides, or
Innisgall, or " Isles of the Strangers." But perhaps the nearest
approach that can be attained to the actual truth of history is to
bo found in the statements of the Eoman writers, and the Irish

228 Transactions of the [Sess.

ethnologic legends contained in the Leabhar Gabhala or Book of
Conquests. Some things they mention, such as the occupation
of these islands by a small dark race, appear to receive some cor-
roboratory evidence from other sources. It seems likely that
they originated from the same parent-stock as the Iberian race
that is now to be found in the Basque Provinces.-*- That the
Eomans knew the sea to the west of Scotland by the name
" Caledonius Oceanus," may be gleaned from Valerius Flaccus,
who writes about a.d. 70 (' Argonautica,' i. 8). Pliny (lib. iv. c. 16)
mentions that there were thirty islands named Hasbrides, which
is wonderfully near the truth ; but some succeeding Koman his-
torians only mention five, which may be accounted for by their
having got their information from an overland expedition, while
Pliny must have got his from some early voyager. We are also in-
formed by Solinus, in his ' Polyhistor ' (c. 22) that from the Promon-
torium Caledonias could be seen the five islands of the Hebudes, and
this promontory we conclude to be the district of Kintjre. Ptolemy
gives a map of these islands, but the only one that can be identified
with any certainty is the most northerly, which he calls Maleus,
and which is doubtless Mull. The other islands are therefore
south of that, and may possibly be represented by Colonsay (with
which Oronsay might be included). Jura, Isla, and Gigha, and
the names given them by Ptolemy are Epidium, Eugaricenna,
and two outer islands marked Ebuda. It may, however, be doubted
whether the Eomans could actually distinguish five islands, as,
unless they had the depression pointed out in which is the Sound
of Isla, they would almost certainly take Isla and Jura to be
one island. And unless the view-point from which they looked
out upon the Atlantic was the top of some of the higher moun-
tains, it is very unlikely they would get even a glimpse of Colon-
say, unless they were at the extreme north of the district of
Kintyre. From these considerations, therefore, we form the con-
clusion that most probably after reaching the shores of the Atlantic,
the Romans noted the statements of the natives and saw some
islands. But that they did not apprehend their position pro-
perly may be seen at a glance by referring to Ptolemy's map.

In the year 87 a.d. Agricola appears to have penetrated to the
Western Ocean, where he saw the shores of Ireland in the dim
distance, and the five islands of the Hebudes and the coast of the
mainland of Scotland running due north. But of all the Eoman
authors, Solinus gives us the fullest statement regarding these
islands, their inhabitants and singular customs, in his ' Polyhistor'
(c. 22). He says they heard that the inhabitants did not know
how to cultivate the ground, but depended entirely upon j?s/« and
milk as their food. They were reported to be ruled by one king,
1 Professor Huxley, ' Critiques and Addresses,' p. 167.

1884-85.] EdinbitrgJi Naturalists' Field Chib. 229

who was not permitted to possess property, as it might cause him
to be avaricious and unjust ; and he was not allowed to have a wife,
as a legitimate family might create ambition. We do not think it
likely that the race that occupied Caisteal-nan-Gillean is here
referred to, as unless some of the Deer remains, which are supposed
to belong to the Eed-deer, should turn out to be those of the Reindeei',
we have no domestic animal giving milk that would be used for
human food except the Sheep, and its bones have only been dis-
covered in the upper layers of the deposit, showing that in all
likelihood it was introduced to the island during the later period of
the occupation of the mound ; while the Deer bones are found all
through from the lower to the upper strata. It appears to us that
though the dwellers at Caisteal-nan-Gillean were certainly accus-
tomed to eat fish, it is doubtful if they had milk to drink — the
probability being that they lived before the time to which Solinus
refers, and that this kitchen-midden was formed by a more ancient
people than those of whom he writes. Another reason for arriving
at this conclusion is to be found in the fact tliat, though the de-
posits in the Crystal-Spring Cavern on Colon say are very ancient,
it is only ii?* the lowest strata of the cave-floor that we find the
remains of- Deer — which points to their extinction on Colonsay and
Oronsay at a very early period. It is evident that it must have been
prior to this time that the kitchen-midden was accumulated, when
Deer were more plentiful on the islands, and fell an easy prey to the
primitive inhabitants with their rude weapons, on which they would
require almost solely to rely to kill the quarry — as there is no
indication of their having had dogs, so far as we can judge from
the remains.

We now turn to the Irish tradition, said to have been preserved
by Fintan, who was baptised by St Patrick. After mentioning the
various settlements that took place in Ireland, and all of which are
reported to have come from the East, — either via the Mediterranean
Sea and the Straits of Gibraltar, or across the continent of Europe,
— he goes on to inform us that a people named the Firbolg came
to Ireland from Thrace. He says they were slaves to the Greeks,
having been conquered by that nation, who obliged them to dig the
earth and raise mould, and carry it in bags or sacks of leather,
known in Irish as holgs ; and that, being oppressed, they deter-
mined to escape from their masters by making boats out of their
leathern sacks in which they had to carry the soil. They succeed
in carrying out their plan, and at last arrive in Ireland, which was
divided into five provinces, ruled over by five brothers ; but the
people were only divided into three septs — viz., the Firbolg, or
" Men of the Bags," who, under Gann and Seangann, landed at
Jorrus Dommann in Connaught ; the Fir Domlman, so called from
the donihin or pits they used to dig, and who arrived under Gean-

230 Transactions of the [Sess.

nan and Eugliruidlie at Tracht Rughruidhe in Ulster ; and the
Fir Gaillian or " Men of the Spear," so named from the gai or spears
with which they used to protect the rest while at work, and who
landed under Slainge at Inverslainge in Leinster.

After the Firbolg had been in Ireland for thirty-six years, it was
invaded by a tribe of people from Alban or Scotland, named the
Tuatha de Danaan, who landed on a Monday, the 1st of May, in
the north of Ireland. In a great battle, fought at a place named
Muigh Tuireadh, they defeated the Firbolg, who are said to have
lost ten thousand men ; and then this important statement is
added : " The remainder of the Firbolg fled to the islands of
Arran, Isla, Eachlin, and Innisgall, where they remained until they
were driven out of the isles by the Cruithnigh or Picts." Among
the islands of the Innisgall were Colonsay and Oronsay ; and some
reliance may be placed on the above legend as narrating certain
facts in history, though surrounded with a halo of myth, which has
probably increased as time progressed. Still our knowledge of the
early inhabitants of the Western Isles all points to the southern
portion of them, if not also the northern, as having been peopled
from Ireland ; and this tends to show that there is a certain essence
of truth contained in these legends, even though it may be difficult
to eliminate it from that which is false.

Nearly two hundred years are said to have elapsed, when, accord-
ing to the ' Book of Conquests,' a colony of Cruithnigh, or Picts,
came from Thrace overland through France to Ireland, having been
allowed to settle there by the sons of Miledh, on condition that
they drove out a people that were called the Tuatha Fidhbhe.
This conquest they succeeded in achieving ; but having become
rivals to Eireamon, the reigning king of Ireland, he in turn drove
them out of Ireland. But he seems to have somewhat relented,
for he is said to have given them the wives of some of his own
men that had been drowned, and even allowed six of them to
remain in Meath, locating them in the plains of Bregia. Those
that left Ireland went to dwell in the country beyond He or Isla,
and this last statement is corroborated by the ' Chronicle of the
Picts and Scots ' (p. 30), which is quite an independent source of
information ; and it adds, — ■" From there they went and conquered
Alban or Scotland, from Cath to Forchu," or from Caithness to the
Firth of Tay. Such statements as we have given require to be
received with great caution ; but the investigations of the best
Celtic critics go to prove that in these legends there are certain
elements of truth. Generally speaking, they may be accepted as
telling facts when they treat of the settlement or expulsion of a
nation, or when they give the names of men or places in Ireland
or Scotland. But when they narrate the heroic deeds of warriors
in battle, or the immense number of killed, the annihilation of a

1884-85.] EdinburgJi Naturalists' Field Club. 231

race, the exact number of years between events, or similar things,
they may well be donbted ; and it is only when we have evidence
of a confirmatory nature to bring to bear from independent sources,
that we should be prepared to accept their assertions.

It is somewhat remarkable that the extraordinary story told us
of the Hebrideans by Solinus is so far borne out by an equally
reliable author, Julius Caesar, who ascribes to the inhabitants of
the interior of Britain the same habits and customs as Solinus,
living some three centuries later, does to the inhabitants of the
Hebrides. These primitive people, driven westwards, would most
probably, three hundred years after Cesar's time, be found only in
those remote parts of Britain to which they had retired. And the
legends told us by the Irish authority lead us to suppose they may
be one of those tribes who came, as stated, from the east, or, in
other words, Britain, to Ireland, and thence withdrew to the Western
Isles of Scotland. That they were the Firbolg, the first-mentioned
of these immigrations to the Innisgall, is not probable, as the race
mentioned by Solinus had cattle ; and we have already given our
reasons for believing that the people who lived on Caisteal-nan-
Gillean had none — if we except sheep during the later period of
its occupation. We are therefore led to the conclusion that this
tribe succeeded the Firbolg, and that most probably they were
the Cruithnigh or Picts, who are known to have had some remark-
able customs regarding succession to the throne. From some
recent discoveries we have made, which have led to the identifica-
tion of one or more places in Colonsay mentioned in connection
with important events in Pictish history, we believe there is now
no doubt that Colonsay and Oronsay were at one time occupied
by this people.

The learned Historiographer -Royal for Scotland says: "The
Celtic race in Britain and Ireland was preceded by a people of an
Iberian type, small, dark-skinned, and curly-haired. They are the
people of the long-headed skulls, and their representatives in Britain
were the tin-workers of Cornwall and the Scilly Islands, who traded
with Spain ; the tribe of the Silures in South Wales ; and in the
legendary history of Ireland, the people called the Firbolg. The
Celtic race followed them in Britain and in Ireland." ^

The same writer also says : " The names Firbolg and Firdomnan
harmonise very singularly with the legendary accounts of the tin-
workers of Cornwall and the Tin Islands. It is not difficult to re-
cognise in the tradition that the Firbolg derived their name from
the leathern sacks which they filled Avith soil, and with which they
covered their boats, and in the Firdomnan from the pits they dug,
the people who worked the tin by digging in the soil and trans-
porting it in bags in their hide-covered boats." ^ As we are not
1 Skene's ' Celtic Scotland,' vol. i. p. 226. ^ ibjj^ p_ 177^

232 Transactions of the [Sess.

aware that there was ever any mining carried on at Oronsay, we
suppose that the only use the Firbolg could have in carrying soil
would be to lay it upon the sandy stretches at the south end of the
island, so as to raise better crops.

But if this was the case, they must have had a much higher
civilisation than we have reason to believe, and cannot be the peo-
ple mentioned by Solinus, as they did not cultivate the soil. It
is more probable that if, as we suppose, the Firbolg came to Oron-
say, they suited themselves to the circumstances of their new
home, and became hunters and fishermen ; but that they tilled the
ground there appears to be no evidence to advance, and the inference
is that they were entirely ignorant, of agriculture. It is interesting
to know that whoever the people were who inhabited the Danish
localities where kjokken-moddings or kitchen-middens are found,
they were also to all appearance ignorant of the cultivation of the
soil. But though there are some similarities between the kitchen-
middens at Oronsay and those in Denmark, still there are great
differences, and it is possible that this may be accounted for by the
Scottish deposit being formed at a subsequent period to those of
Denmark. The wave of immigration whose population formed the
kjokken-moddings in Jutland would take a long time, as it con-
tinued on its journey from the east, before it reached the extreme
west of Scotland. The most striking difference in the remains is
in those of the sheep, which seems not to be found in the deposits
in Denmark ; but it must also be kept in remembrance that the
bones of the animal were only found at the top of the upper layer
of the Oronsay kitchen-midden, and that they must have been
deposited there during the latest period of the occupation of
Caisteal-nan-Gillean, or possibly at a later time, before the human
deposits were covered over with the blown sand.-*-

The following description of the Firbolg is found in one of the
Irish manuscripts : " Every one who is black-haired, who is a
tattler, guileful, tale-telling, noisy, contemptible ; every wretched,
mean, strolling, unsteady, harsh, and inhospitable person ; every
slave, every mean thief, every churl, every one who loves not to
listen to music and entertainment, the disturber of every council
and every assembly, and the promoters of discord among the peo-
ple,— these are the descendants of the Firbolg, the Fir Gailinn of

1 Sii' John Lnlibock, in his paper on the Danish kjokken-moddings, in
the ' Natural History Review,' 1861, p. 496, says : " In the lake-habitations
of the Stone Age in Switzerland, grains of wheat and barley, and even pieces
of bread, or rather biscuit, have been found. It does not appear that the
men of the kjokken-moddings (or Danish shell-mounds) had any knowledge
of agriculture, no traces of grain of any sort having been hitherto discovered
— the only vegetable remains found in them being pieces of burnt wood, and
some charred substance referred by M. Forchhammer to the Zostera marine
a sea-plant, which was perhaps used in the production of salt."

1884-85-] EdinburgJi Naturalists' Field Club. 233

Liogairue, and of the Firdomnau in Erinn. But, however, the de-
scendants of the Firbolg- are the most numerous of all three. This
is taken from an old book." ^

This, then, must surely be that Iberian race of small dark men
of whom Professor Huxley ^ and Dr Bedoe ^ write, who have left
some slight traces of their existence on the West of Scotland in the
name of the island of Isla, or //e, as it was anciently spelt ; * also
in two of their skeletons, and some other remains found in a cave
in the Old Red Sandstone near Oban during 1869 by Mr Mackay,
and described by Professor Turner.^ But may we not ask, Where
are there traces of their dwellings ? or, if we find none, had they
any ? and the only answer we can give is, that no such traces of
their habitation in the West of Scotland have been left, except-
ing, perhaps, the small ruined fortification on St Kilda, named
after them Dunfliirbolg.''' It is likel}'-, from its remoteness, to have
been the last stronghold of the race before its individuality was
blotted out by absorption into the succeeding immigrations of other
tribes. But though blended with that of the later immigrations,
the blood of the Firbolg seems to have been so strong that it has
more or less permeated the present natives of the Western Isles,
and has left its traces in the small dark people that are so frequently
met with in these localities. However, let us hope there has been
eliminated from them all those questionable qualities mentioned by
M'Firbis, and that they have been replaced by virtues even greater
than were their faults. This may have been the race who dwelt
upon the shell-mound, Caisteal-nan-Gillean, Oronsay ; and their
rude houses, if they had any, made of wood or wattles, would soon
disappear, their site being only marked by the accumulation of the
remains we have referred to. If this tribe formed the deposits,
then they probably belong to a period not later than the Christian
era, and possibly long before it.

At this meeting Mr A. B. Herbert, President, read a short note
on the Hornet [Vespa crabro), which was illustrated by specimens.

1 M'Firbis's " Book of Genealogies," in O'Curry's ' Lectures on MS. Ma-
terials,' p. 223.

2 ' Critiques and Addresses,' pp. 134, 167.

^ Dr Bedoe's Essay, ' Anthropological Society's Memoirs,' vol. iii. pp. 384-
573.

4 Skene's 'Celtic Scotland,' vol. i. p. 216.

5 ' British Association Report,' 1871, p. 160.

" Skene's 'Celtic Scotland,' vol. i. \). 184, note 31.

234 Transactions of tJie [Sess.

VIII.—iiKETGH OF THE GEOLOGY OF THE PENTLANDS.

By Mr JOHN HENDERSON.

{Read Feb. 26, 1885.)

The Pentland Hills, lying so near the city, have always been a
favourite resort of Edinburgh naturalists ; and no doubt most
members of the Edinburgh Naturalists' Field Club are familiar with
the zoology and botany of these hills. But as I understand the
members of the Club have not as yet devoted so much atten-
tion to another kindred branch of natural science — viz., Greology —
I thought it might not be out of place to give a brief sketch of the
geology of the Pentland Hills, hoping to direct the attention of
some of the members, at any rate, to this by no means the least
interesting of the physical sciences.

The Pentland Hills geographically occupy a belt of country
extending from the south side of Edinburgh to Dunsyre in Lanark-
shire. They run north-east and south-west, and are about 16 miles
in length and from 3 to 6 in width, and their greatest height above
the sea-level is about 1900 feet. In the north-east portion of the
range, where the hills attain their greatest elevation, the principal
rocks are of volcanic origin, while in the middle and south-west
portions the rocks are mostly of sedimentary character. Before
going into detail regarding these rocks, I take the liberty of giving
you a list of the different sedimentary formations or systems that
form the known crust of the earth, so as to keep us in mind of the
position the rocks forming the Pentland Hills occupy in the geolo-
gical record. The different systems or formations are arranged in
the following order, beginning at the lowest — viz.: Archaean,
Cambrian, Silurian, Devonian or Old Red Sandstone, Carbonifer-
ous, Permian, Triassic, Jurassic, Cretaceous, Tertiary, and Post-
Tertiary. Such is the arrangement of what is known as the
sedimentary deposits — that is, rocks formed by the deposition of
mud, sand, gravel, boulders, and other materials, through the agency
of water ; while the term volcanic or igneous is applied to all those
rocks which have been ejected from below, either in the condition
of lava, ashes, or volcanic mud, or consolidated between the strata
into which they have been injected. The term contemporaneous
is applied to those volcanic products which have reached the
surface and become interbedded in the sedimentary deposits ;
while the term intrusive is applied to those that have been con-
solidated between the rocks into which they have been injected.

The north-eastern portion of the Pentland Hills is composed
principally of igneous or volcanic rocks, consisting of a series of

1884-85.] Edinbiirgli Naturalists' Field Club. 235

beds of felstone and felstone-porphyiy in long bands, running north-
east and south-west, and apparently overlapping each other from
north-west to south-east in an ascending order. These beds or
bands of volcanic rock extend south-west to Habbie's Howe and the
west Kipp Hill, and one narrow band runs as far south as Carlops.
The middle portion of the Pentland Hills is mostly made up of
sedimentary rocks, belonging to three different formations — viz.,
Silurian, Old Eed Sandstone, and Carboniferous. The oldest of
these — the Silurian — occurs as a number of patches cropping up
through the newer rocks. The first of these patches we meet with,
going south from Edinburgh, occurs at Craigentarrie, on the north-
west side of the hills, a little to the east of Threipmuir Pond ; the
next lies to the south of Bavelaw Castle ; another patch occurs at
Habbie's Howe ; but the largest and most important exposure of
Silurian rocks in the Pentland Hills occurs at the head of the
North Esk and Lyne Water. These patches of Silurian rocks are
separated from one another by overlying beds of conglomerate,
sandstone, and igneous rocks. The conglomerates and sandstones
lie unconformable on the Silurian, and the unconformability between
these rocks is extreme, for the Silurian beds, where they are exposed
in the Pentland Hills, stand nearly vertical, while the conglomerates
and sandstones lie in a nearly horizontal position upon their up-
turned ends. The conglomerates that lie upon the Silurian are
mostly made up of rounded pieces of these Silurian rocks. These
pieces have evidently been broken off the upturned edges of the
beds, and rolled about in water and rounded in a most complete
manner, as can be seen in the gorge which the Logan Burn has cut
at Habbie's Howe, where the rounded pebbles of all sizes up to a
foot in diameter are exposed in cliffs from fifty to sixty feet high.
The beds gradually get finer as they rise in the series, till they end
in the sandstones of the Hare Hill and Cairn Hill, The rest of
the Pentland Hills to the south-west are mostly made up of con-
glomerates, grits, and sandstones, and the hills in that portion of
the range are carved out of the nearly horizontal beds. With
recard to the ag-e of these cone;lomerates and sandstones which lie
in the middle and south-western portion of the Pentlands, we have
little data to go upon to show what system they really belong to.
In all likelihood the conglomerates and sandstones that lie im-
mediately above the Silurian, and unconformable to these rocks,
belong to the upper portion of the Old Eed Sandstone system ;
while the sandstones that flank the hills on their north-west side,
and the sandstones that form the hills at the south-west end of the
range, may be considered as Carboniferous.

Now it is part of the geologist's work to endeavour, from the
facts he has gathered, to look back into the world's history, and
depict the changes which have taken place over the district he

236 Transactions of tlie [Sess.

may have examined. If we try to do so in the Pentland Hills
district, we are forced to the conclusion that a most complicated
series of phenomena have taken place between the Sibrian period
and the present time. The first picture presented to ns by the ^
study of these rocks is a comparatively quiet Silurian sea, teeming
with life, in which nearly every class of marine invertebrate fauna
was represented. Sponges, corals, star-fishes, crustaceans, and mol-
luscs swarmed in that Silurian sea. That this sea existed here for
a long period there is every evidence, from the immense deposits
of Silurian strata that can be seen in the largest patch exposed at
the head of the North Esk and Lyne Water. Here we have an un-
broken series of Silurian strata upwards of 4000 feet in vertical
thickness, consisting of thin and thick bedded shales, sandstones,
and conglomerates, and occasional beds of limestone. They belong
to what is termed the Upper Silurian series. Above them in the
Lyne Water lie another set of beds, about 1000 feet thick, conform-
able with these Upper Silurians, which in all likelihood belong to
the lower portion of the Old Eed Sandstone system. These Upper
Silurian and lower Old Eed Sandstone beds, now standing in a
nearly vertical position, must have been deposited in a nearly hori-
zontal position in a gradually sinking sea-bottom, and often at a
very slow rate, as the nature of the beds and their fossil contents
show. But a sudden and extraordinary change came over this
lono--standing and comparatively quiet sea of Silurian and Old Bed
Sandstone times in the neighbourhood of what is now the Pentland
Hills. This enormous thickness of strata was ruptured and turned
up on edge, sheets of molten lava were ejected through the uptilted
ends of the Silurian beds, while at the same time the waves at-
tacked these rocks, breaking them up into fragments, rolling them
into pebbles, and piling up the materials in the hollows of the sea-
bottom. Neither did the materials ejected from the interior escape
the o-eneral denudation, for the sections now exposed show that the
volcanic matter was attacked and reduced to a paste which helped
to cement the pebbles and other fragments of rock which form the
conglomerates and sandstones contemporaneous with those out-
bursts. How long this battle between Vulcan and Neptune raged
,we have no means at present of knowing, but it is evident that,
before the close of the Carboniferous period, Neptune had managed
to bury the works of his antagonist beneath several thousands
of feet of sedimentary strata ; for from a study of the geology of
Mid-Lothian, we are forced to the conclusion that the Carbonif-
erous rocks of the district lay in an unbroken sheet over where
the Pentland Hills now stand— at least, over the north-eastern por-
tion of these hills. But after all this deposition of Carboniferous
strata, amounting in all to possibly about 10,000 feet, another
convulsion, or other convulsions, shook the district, and all this

1884-85.] Edinburgh Naturalists Field Club. 237

immense thickness of Carboniferous rocks was bent into anticlines
and syncliues, and broken and faulted, and a long section of the
district now occupied by the north-eastern portion of the Pentland
Hills pushed up to a height of 2000 or 3000 feet. This is
proved by the two great faults that run parallel with the hills
at their north-eastern portion. That enormous denudation again
took place is abundantly proved by the shorn-off and levelled-up
condition of anticlines, synclines, and faults. The long stony
ridge that had been upheaved was denuded of its superimposed
sedimentary strata, and the buried volcanic rocks again exposed
to the action of the waves, carving glens and valleys through
the ridge, and leaving the harder portions standing up as hills :
and so in the middle and south-western portions of these hills the
same denudation had been going on, for what must have been a
great platform of nearly horizontal beds of sandstone has now got
valleys scooped out of it in every direction, some of tliem nearly a
thousand feet deep. That the ice of the glacial period had a great
hand in finally moulding these hills and the adjacent country into
their present form, there can be no doubt. Evidence of ice-action
is common all over this range of hills. Eubbings and scratchings
produced by ice — or rather the hard materials fixed in the ice
— are found high up on the hill-sides, and in one instance, at
least, on the top of one of the higliest hills ; boulders, some
of them ten and twelve tons in weight, from far-off distances,
strew the hill-sides ; while boulder-clays lie packed in the val-
leys, in many places containing materials foreign to the district.
All these tell of a time when this country was under severe arctic
conditions — when a great ice-sheet swept with slow but irresistible
force over the face of the country, rubbing and grinding down the
rocks, packing the eroded materials into the hollows, and form-
ing what is known as boulder-clay and other glacial deposits. Nor
has nature been idle among these hills since the glacial period,
for frost, rain, and wind have been busy on their sides and in the
valleys, breaking up and carrying away to lower levels the mate-
rials of which the hills are composed, as the deep ruts and glens
formed by the burns that run from their sides testify.

Such is a brief, and, I feel, very imperfect sketch of one of the
most interesting districts in Scotland, and you will readily see that
to do anything like justice to such a subject would take much
more time than the nature of our meetings will allow. However,
I hope tliat the few remarks I have made may induce other mem-
bers of the Club to take hammer in hand, and go and investigate
for themselves.

VOL. I.

238 Transactions of the [Sess.

IX.— DIATOMS.

By Mr JOHN RATTRAY, M.A., B.Sc.

Scottish Marine Station, Granton.

{Read Feb. 26, 1885.)

Among the vast and varied array of micro-organisms with which
the student of nature has to deal, there are perhaps none that offer
more attractive and interesting features than those presented by
the DiatomacCce. These unicellular organisms, with their charac-
teristic and, in most cases, delicately-sculptured siliceous walls,
are to be found in fresh and salt or brackish water, as well as on
damp ground generally, either in a free state or not unfrequently
adhering to stones or to decaying or healthy plants of larger size
than themselves. Viewed under a moderately high power, they
are found to possess a very great variety of outline — from the
narrow elongated Nitzschice and Synedrse to the cuneiform or wedge-
shaped Meridions, the discoidal Coscinodisci, the curved and saddle-
shaped Campylodisci, the sigmoid Pleurosigmse, the navicular
Cocconees, the tri- or poly-angular Triceratia, and the geniculate
Achnanthidia. Appendages of various forms, and presenting
various differences as to disposition and dimensions, are also not
uncommon. These occur sometimes "in the form of marginal or
submarginal alee, as in Surirella ; sometimes as elevated keel-like
ridges, as in Nitzschia ; and sometimes as tubular horns, which
may be simple or branched, as in Chtetoceros or Rhizosolenia. But
throughout the wide range of external configuration, a remarkable
symmetry is, with few exceptions, — such as Achnanthes and some
others, — generally very apparent. This significant characteristic
at once forces itself upon the attention, the entire Diatom cell
being composed essentially of two'- valves and a connecting hoop
or cingulum intervening between the former. The valves are
in most cases similar to one another, but the cingulum may vary
very greatly in its appearance — that is, in its state of development ;
and it is in all cases of the utmost importance to remember that
the outline of any given frustule need not present the same con-
tour when viewed with the valves next the eye — i.e.., from the
valval or side aspect — and with the cingulum next the observer
— 2.e., from the zonal or front aspect. No more striking contrast
in this respect need be sought than that which is found in the case

' In some cases pseudo-multiple frustules are found : thus, a Triceratium
breaks up into two triangular end plates and tliree rectangular side plates,
while the latter may again divide into several paralleliform pieces.

1884-85-] Edmhurgli Naturalists' Field Ciiib. 239

of Triceratium, where, in the one view, the organism is triangular,
but in the other quadrilaterah

Seeing, then, that the configuration of the siHceons cell-wall is
so prominent, it is evident that it will be of the greatest import-
ance in the elaboration of any system of classification ; hence it
becomes necessary to designate its various component parts by a
well-defined phraseology. This has been recognised since the time
of Ehrenberg, who introduced the terms dorsum and venter to
signify a convex and a concave surface respectively ; but it is
obvious that these designations could readily be applied to non-
liomologous parts, hence Kiitzing, Eabenhorst, and others adopted
an improved but somewhat misleading nomenclature, which may
be most clearly explained in tlie following manner : —

-ri , • /T» ir 1 1X7 ^ i Lateral surfaces (Ehrenberg").
-b ront view (Ealfs and W. i \ ^i • -i /t--\ • \

o -.i N . 1 A ( _ ' -r rnnary side (Kutzmg).

^ ' "^ i I Secondary side (Eabenhorst).

observer, \ \ rj ^ ■ ^ '

' ) \ Zonal view.

o-j • /-o ir 1 T^^ "1 (^ Dorsum and venter (Ehrenbere:).
Side view (Kalfs and W. i \ „ 1 -i ,^r-: ■ s

Smith)— ?> surface of ^ - <.' Secondary side (Kutzmg).

1,1 i i rnmary side Eabenhorst).

valve next observer, I f i- i 1 • '

' ) [^ Valval view.

There can be no doubt that the terms having reference to the con-
necting zone and valves are those which are most natural, and
which will ultimately gain the acceptance of all.

In habit, as in form, great variations occur in this interesting
group. In very many instances the individual frustules are met
with in a free condition, but in others stipitate and concatenate
or ramose forms are to be found. It is hardly necessary to note
that the form of any chain, whether straight or curved, will depend
on the figure of the component frustules ; but it may be men-
tioned that both the degree and nature of the attachment of adjoin-
ing frustules vary within wide limits. Thus in some cases the
union is so slight that one frustule can glide over the other
{e.g., Bacillaria) ; while in others the junction surfaces are dentated
or provided with excrescences and pits, in order to efiect a more
complete connection. The nature of the attachment, moreover, may
be temporary or permanent. In the former case the free forms be-
come adherent by one extremity, but no special connecting medium
exists ; while in the other there may be a nodule or pedicel for
fixation. This stipes, again, may branch either in a dichotomous
manner, as in Gomphonema, or irregularly, as in Licmophora ; but
its length is a matter of secondary importance, as it is found to
vary in any species according to the inherent vigour of the species
or the nature of the external influences to which it is subjected.

240 Transactions of the [Sess.

Instead of possessing a simple or compound pedicel or sti23es,
many Diatoms — which Ehrenberg included under the name " Lacer-
nata " — are embedded in a gelatinous substance ; and since numer-
ous frustules are often embraced in this covering, frondose appear-
ances are the result. These frondose forms may be either mem-
branous, filiform, or filamentous and ramulose, — differences in
thickness and in expansion being at the same time often clearly
recognisable. Eeinhardt ^ remarks that the modes of formation of
the pedicel of stipitate species and of gelatinous colonies present
phenomena analogous to those found in palmellaceous Algse, inter-
calation of cell-walls being sometimes found in Mastogloia, in
which outer gelatinous and inner more consistent layers are to be
recognised, a pedicel being the result of local mucilaginisation of
the outer layer. AVithin the muco-gelatinous envelope the dis-
position of the frustules may be either regular, as in Schizonema
— a not uncommon marine genus — or irregular, as in the marine
Dickieia. In the determination of species, the flaccid or rigid con-
sistence of the fronds, the character of the branching, and the
nature of the union of the ramuli into fascicles, are important.

The siliceous substance which is incorporated in the cell-walls
of living Diatoms varies very greatly in its amount in different
genera. In some cases, such as Ebizosolenia and Thalassiosira,
it is very deficient, the wall being even in a (/uasr flaccid condition ;
and, generally speaking, there is less siliceous matter in filamentous
than in free forms, and less in tubular processes than in the walls
of the frustule bearing these processes. The silex is associated
with organic matter, and, according to Frank! and, with iron as
silicate or protoxide — a circumstance which explains the occurrence
of a brown colour when Diatoms are moderately heated, the prot-
oxide absorbing oxygen and becoming brown peroxide.

In addition to the siliceous lamina, various other membranes
or cell-tunics have from time to time been recorded, and among
these it is interesting to recall (1) the soft primordial membrane
enclosing the cell contents ; (2) Nageli's third tunic, or mucila-
ginous layer, inside the primordial layer ; and (3) Kiitzing's third
or cement tunic, extending often over a considerable part of the
frustule outside the siliceous coat. This layer is to be regarded,
according to Kiltzing, as equivalent to the connecting matter of
the frustules when these occur in union ; while Frankland believes
that the stains on whose existence it was established are attribut-
able to the oxidation of iron salts in chemical union with silica.
On the other hand (4) Shadbolt's third tunic, which has been
said to be sometimes " cellular," and to present markings different
from those of the siliceous valves below it, was regarded as horny,
somewhat pliant, and possessing a certain amount of elasticity, so

1 ' Sitzuiigb. Versamml. Russ. Naturf. u. Aertze.' Odessa: 1S83.

1884-85-] EdiiiburglL Naturalists Field Club. 241

as to enable it to return to its original condition when bent or
rolled up. With regard to the character of the siliceous lamina,
Nilgeli has spoken of it as extra-cellular, while Meueghini has
maintained that the silica must permeate some form of connective
or organic membrane. Smith, ^ on the other hand, has held that
by macerating the frustules in acid, the cell membrane partly or
wholly becomes detached from the valves, and has thereby de-
duced that the siliceous coat is an independent structure.

The sculpturing of tlie valves is often of the most elegant and
beautiful . description. It may appear in the form of distinct ribs
or costaj, of more or less minute and well-defined dots or puncta,
of stripes or stria? of very variable arrangement, or of " cells " or
areolte. More than one kind of marking may occur on one and
the same valve ; and the ornamentation may cover the entire
frustule or may leave certain areas unaffected. The real nature
of the various types of sculpturing thus indicated has been very
variously stated. A point has sometimes been ascribed to a
depression, sometimes to an elevation, and sometimes to a conden-
sation or thickening of the siliceous matter. The costaB have in
some instances been attributed to furrows, in others to ridges, and
in yet others to canals or to incomplete internal partitions or
septa. The striae are in some cases resolvable into dots or
puncta, and are called monll'tform ; but in others they cannot be so
resolved, and are said to be continuous. Recently Dr Flogel,- from
a series of microscopic sections of frustules which he has been
able to procure, stated the following general conclusions : —
The marking is caused — ■
(I.) By sharply projecting wall thicknesses —

(a) on the inner surface of the membrane, e.g., Achnanthes

(transverse stria?), Isthmia (valves) ;
(/?) on the outer surface of the membrane, e.g.., Isthmia
(girdle band).
(II.) By chambers within the membrane — -
(a) with distinct openings —

(i) on the outer surface of the cell, and closed in-
wards, e.g., Tiiceratium, Coscinodiscus ;
(ii) on inner surface, chambers large, e.g., Pinnularia.
(/3) Without distinct openings, but of considerable size—
(i) with smooth chamber-walls, e.g., Coscinodiscus

centralis ;
(ii) with nodular thickened chamber - walls, e.g.,
Eupodiscus.
(y) Closed on all sides and extremely small, approaching
the limit of discrimination, e.g., Pleurosigma, Navi-
cula lyra, Surirella.
1 ' Ann. Xat. Hist.,' 1851. 2 < j^ur. Roy. Micr. Soc.,' 1884.

242 Transactions of the [Sess.

Strasburger, Abbe, Weiss, Prinz, van Ermengem, Errera, Deby,
Grunow, Stephenson, Slack, Morehouse, Miiller, Wells, Schumann,
Pfitzer, Hallier, Borscow, Walker- Arnott, Dippel, Max Schultze,
Burgess, Kitton, Cox, and van Heurck have, among others, recently
expressed opinions on this most difficult problem, but of these the
conclusions arrived at by Cox and van Heurck need alone be selected,
in contrast to those of Flogel above quoted, as indicative of the
great difficulties that are encountered in the solution of this com-
plex question.

Dr J. D. Cox^ infers generally — (1) That the Diatom shell is usu-
ally formed of two laminte, one or both of which may be areolated, and
may be strengthened by ribs which have been described both as
costas and as canaliculi. (2) That the normal form of the areolce
is circular, but that these, if crowded, become hexagonal or sub-
hexagonal. (3) That the areolee are pits or depressions in the
inner surface of one of the lamina?, so that when two laminas are
applied together, the exterior surfaces of the shell are approxi-
mately smooth, and the cavities are within. (4) That the apparent
thickening on the exterior of the lines bounding the areolse in some
species (Eupodiscus argus) is not in contravention of, but is in
addition to, the formation above described. (5) That however iine
the dotted markings of Diatom valves may be, the evidence from
the colour of the spaces between the dots, and of the dots them-
selves, supports the conclusion that they follow the analogy of the
coarser forms, in which both fracture and colour are found to prove
that the dots are areolae and the weaker places in the shell.

Dr van Heurck ^ has, on the other hand, stated his general con-
clusions as follows : —

(I.) The valves in the Cryptoraphidieaa generally consist of two
layers —

(a) The lower single lamina, with more or less delicate
punctations on its inner face.
(It could not be determined whether the punctations
completely traversed the lower layer, or only pro-
ceeded to a certain depth.)
(/3) The upper lamina varies —

(i) It forms alveoli, usually closed from above, in
Triceratium favus and Coscinodiscus oculus-
iridis.
(ii) The alveoli are open above in Eupodiscus argus.
(iii) In some cases the upper layer may entirely
disappear (Triceratium intricatum), the various
stages in this process being traceable in dif-
ferent species.

^ 'Jour. Roy. Micr. Soc.,' Dec. 1884.

- ' Synop. d. Diat. d, Belgique,' pp. 35-37.

1884-85-] Edi)iburgh Naturalists' Field Club. 243

(IL) The valves in the Pseudoraphidieaa and Raphidiefe present
the same structure as those in the Cryptoraphidiete ; but
the alveoh, though much smaller, may be observed in
some genera of Raphoneis, Fleurosigma, &c., by the use
of Smith's medium.

(III.) The beads of Diatoms are formed by alveoli find striae,
and often by the walls of the alveoli.

The general inference arrived at by Professor Smith as to the
nature of the valvular sculpturing was, that it was all reducible to
modifications of a " cellular tissue," analogous to that which is so
manifest in the cases of Triceratium and Isthmia. In the conflu-
ence of the component "cells" of this "tissue" along certain
lines, he found an explanation of the appearances generally known
under the desia:nation of " costaj " or unresolvable striae. The
longitudinal band or raphe, which has been made the basis of a
system of classification by Professor H. L. Smith, was regarded as a
strand of condensed or more solid silex, its median and terminal
spots or nodules being b;it expansions of that band of a similar
character, and both being designed for the purpose of giving
greater firnniess to the frustule, so as to enable it more effectively
to resist the external pressure to which it might be subjected.
The fact that, as a result of pressure, the internal protoplasmic
contents never escaped at the raphes or noduli, and that when
fractured no disposition to break at this region was manifested,
were, moreover, adduced as proofs that no perforations of the valve
existed here.

The genera Pinnularia, ISTavicula, and Gomphonema, among
others, may be cited as affording good exam})les of nodulated
valves ; while the genus Stauroneis is provided with a transversely
elongated central nodule to which the special name of " stauros "
has been applied. On the other hand, a simple, bare, or unorna-
mented area on diatomaceous valves has been designated by Smith
a " pseudo-nodule."

In contrast to the views which have just been noted, it is inter-
esting to recall the circumstance that Ehrenberg regarded the
valvular puncta as in many cases real j;ores; these, he believed,
played the part of apertures of exit for the pedal organs,
which might be few or many, and which were supposed by him
to be essential to explain the locomotion of living frustules.
Similarly this observer regarded the striae and costae as in many
cases real fissures^ which were supposed to possess the double
function of serving at once as exit-channels for the ova and as
means for bringing the internal protoplasmic substance in close
contact with the external medium.

Kiitzing also maintained the belief that valve-pores existed,
and that through them the muco-gelatinous mass so prominent in

244 Transactions of the [Sess.

ScliizonemEe and other frondose forms was extravasated. Sclileiden,
on the other hand, regarded the longitudinal band as a cleft, but
the median and terminal nodules as thickened areas of siliceous
matter. This conception has also been held by Siebold and Nageli,
who regarded the nodules as minute monticules or eminences ;
but it was rejected by Professor Bailey, who found by dissolving
the siliceous substance of the valves with hydrofluoric acid — the
objective of his microscope being protected by a slip of mica fixed
by means of Canada balsam — tliat the nodules and longitudinal
band were the last to disappear, and that they must accordingly be
looked upon as the thickest regions.

The true nature of the strige, as well as of the more clearly
defined bands and valve nodules, was disputed by the earlier
observers, as well as by those of the present day. By some they
were regarded as depressions, by others as elevations — various
arguments having been adduced in support of both hypotheses.

Structures in the Diatom valve called " vittae " were believed
by Kiitzing to possess a very special function, and were employed
by him in naming a subsection of the group — the " Vittatae."
Smith, however, held that these appearances were not special
organs, but mere modifications in the outline of the valve, which
was simply inflected at the positions in question. The " canali-
culi," so often referred to by Professor W. Smith, were, on the
other hand, regarded by him as inter - lamellar channels or
hollows intervening between the siliceous coat and the internal
membrane, and formed by undulating flexures of the epidermal
envelope, their function being supposed to be the conveyance of
the nutriment which was believed to enter from without — through
pores existing along the line of suture — to the surface of that
membrane.

A considerable amount of discussion has recently taken place
on the question of the value of the external markings of Diatom
valves, from a systematic point of view. Ehrenberg regarded the
number of strife or costfe as constant in a given space on the
valves of members of the same species ; while Smith maintained
that the stri^ were constant in frustules originating from the same
embryo, though they might vary in those from different embryos.
'Castracane,-"- by the application of photo-micrography to this ques-
tion, concludes generally (1) that the number of stride is constant
in frustules of the same species, though these are of different
size and outline ; (2) that the stria3 are not always of absolute
specific value, being in a few cases irregular, but that they are
so when regularly disposed ; (3) that in a series of valves origin-
ating from different sporangial frustules belonging to the same

^ ' Atti. Accad. Pontif. Nuovi Lincei ' vol. xxxi., ser. vi. : May 26, 1S78.

1884-85-] Edinburgh Naturalists' Field Chtb. 245

species, tlie variation in tlie number of stri;"o never exceeds one-
fifth ; and (4) that there is never any difference in number in
sj^ecies originating from the same stock. Dr Wallich ^ had pre-
viously, in 1877, expressed the general conviction that though
the total number of strife on the valves of a Diatom may be almost
constant in every valve of the same species, the number on any
fractional part of any valve (e./y., on the thousandth of an inch)
would vary in proportion to the size of the valve.

To the opinion of Castracane just quoted both Kitton and Pro-
fessor H. L. Smith ^ have offered objections, and among these
perhaps not the least important, from a practical point of view,
is that pointed out by Smith — namely, the multiplication of
species which must follow its adoption ; although it ought always
to be borne in mind that, by basing their limits on broader
and firmer principles, their number should, if practicable, be
reduced, while the very diverse character of the stritB in Stauro-
neis gracilis, and its sporangia! frustule, Stauroneis phenicenteron,
is referred to as an extreme case proving the unimportance of tlie
deductions. Nevertheless in the description of any given frustule,
the position of the stria?, whether radiate or parallel, their moniliform
or confluent nature, and their occurrence over the general surface
of the valve or only over certain more or less definitely circum-
scribed areas of it, should be noted, as well as the presence or
absence of a median raphe, the existence or non-existence of
central and terminal nodules, and the figure and position of the
surface areote.

So far the valves. The cingulum or connecting membrane can-
not be regarded as of essential importance, but it is often present
in some degree of pi'ominence. In circular and discoidal Diatoms
it presents the form of a continuous ring — e.g.^ in Coscinodiscus
radiatus, a form not nncommon in the littoral areas of the Firth
of Forth. In oblong frustules, again, such as Navicula, it has an
oblong or i^avicular outline. In not a few cases it presents an
elegant sculpturing either in the form of areolation or striation,
as in Isthmia and Achnanthes. In general, however, the propor-
tion of siliceous matter present in it is, as above noted, less than
in the valves. In size it varies very much, being very small in
Pleurosigma?, while in some instances it is distinctly larger at
one extremity than at the other — e.g.^ in Gomphonema. The
mode of its development, and of its behaviour during the temno-
genetio process, has not in all cases been clearly determined.^

1 'Month. Micr. Jour./ vol. xvii. p. 61 : 1877.

2 ' Amer. Micr. Month. Jour.,' vol. ii. pp. 2-J1-223 : 1881.

^ See, however, Flugel's results in 'Jour. Roy. Micr. Soc.,' 1884, p. 076
tt seq.

246 Transactions of the [Sess.

The contents of the diatomaceous frustules consist of the follow-
ing- distinct structures : (1) the soft, mucilaginous, yellowish-brown
or orange-brown endochrome or " gonimic substance" of Kiitzing;
(2) a distinct central nuclear body, which is probably, as indicated
by Schleiden, the point at which, as in other organisms, fissiparous
division originates, and which, according to Nageli, is either pri-
mary (i.e., active) or secondary (f.e., inactive), and includes a
distinct nucleolus ; and (3) translucent globules, which, oh the
whole, are definite and constant in position, and occupy less space
than that taken up by the nucleus. These globules, according
to Smith and Kiitzing, are fatty or oily, and have been looked
upon by Kiitzing as equivalent to the starch of higher vegetables ;
while, on the other hand, Ehrenberg regarded them as the male
reproductive organs of the living frustules, the vesicles in the
vicinity of the nucleus being regarded as " stomach sacs." Objec-
tions were, however, soon raised to this polygastric view, among
vphich may be noted the circumstance that colouring matter could
not be detected to be carried along towards the middle, where
these sacs should lie. The mucilaginous endochrome may be either
diffused irregularly in the interior of the cell, or may form parietal
layers or plates, or be more aggregated towards the centre, or it
may be disposed in lines radiating from the nucleus. The green
colouring matter is concealed by a buff-coloured substance called
" phycoxanthin." ^

Whether the mucilaginous contents of Diatom cells come into
actual contact with the external medium cannot yet be said to
be clearly decided, owing to the great difSculty experienced in
determining the minute structure of the cell walls. That such
a contact does occur along sutures between the opposed valves,
or between the valves and cingulum, has, however, been asserted
by several observers, especially by those who maintain that the__
movement of the frustules in their watery medium is due to
cilia.

To account for the movements of living Diatoms, which are often
of an extremely interesting and are always of a puzzling character,
various hypotheses have been advanced, but no satisfactory ex-
planation of the phenomena has yet been forthcoming. Free as well
as concatenated frustules may move, and even fixed forms some-
times exhibit such characteristics. The motion in many cases con-
sists of a series of jerks in a given direction. These are followed
by a pause, and the frustule then returns to its original position by
a series of jerks in the opposite direction, and in the movement an
obstacle is not avoided. As, however, other undoubted vegetable or-
ganisms are capable of locomotion, the phenomenon cannot be looked

1 Sachs' ' Text-Book of Botany,' 2d ed., p. 260.

1884-85.] Edinburgh Naturalists' Field Club. 247

upon as indicative of an animal nature. Ehrenberg has ascribed
the motion to the existence of a snail-like foot projecting from the
central pore or umbilicus, but no such structure can be detected by
the eye. Nageli, in 1853, denied the existence of special locomo-
tive organs, and declared that the motion was due to the attraction
and emission of fluids which were necessary for the maintenance of
the nutritive processes. The fluids in question were supposed to
be unequally distributed over the surface, and to be sufficiently
powerful to overcome the resistance of the water. By further su[)-
posing tlmt one-half of the cell admitted while the other emitted
currents, and that a regular alternation of these processes took place
at the two halves, the alternate forward and backward movements
were explained. Hogg, in 1855, attributed the motions to cilia,
while Smith ascribed them not to any external organs, but to
exosmotic and endosmotic processes occurring simultaneously, and
at the extremities of the frustules. This view has been accepted by
Rabenhorst ; but another probable cause had already been pointed
out by Wenham, and accepted by Siebold, namely, the undulations
of an external membrane, which, however, may not have been
clearly recognised by any observer. An ingenious suggestion has
recently been made by Engelmann,^ namely, that the unseen gase-
ous molecules escaping from the Diatom cell cause the movement,
he having found in Bacteria a means of demonstrating under the
microscope the evolution of oxygen by the living frustules. O'Hara,
in 1882, again accepted the general explanation previously ad-
vanced by Wenham ; while still later, 1883, Hogg attributed the
movements to contractile prehensile fllaments. In the same year,
van Ermengem- ascribed them to thermo-dynamical, and, perhaps,
electro-capillary forces ; while Adams^ has even speculated on the
occurrence of cilia lining the surface of the enclosed vegetable
matter, which might bring about the results observed. This view,
however, can hardly be looked upon as tenable, the hypotheses
ascribing the movements to cilia, to osmotic or other physical pro-
cesses, to the undulations of an external membrane, or to the
escape of gaseous molecules, being much more probable.

The velocity of the movements of Diatoms varies very greatly.
Some advance at the rate of about one-third of an inch per minute,
while others do not pass over more than one fifty -fifth of an inch in
the same space of time. Between these numbers many other
speeds have been recorded.

The methods of multiplication hitherto observed among Diatoms
are (1) fissiparous division or temnogensis ; (2) conjugation ; and

1 'Bot. Zeit.,' 1881, p. 441 et seq.

- ' Bull. Soc. Belg. Micr.,' vol. ix. pp. 41-43.

* ' Amer. Month. Micr. Jour.,' vol. iv. p. 59.

248 Transactions of tJie [Sess.

(3) sporular multiplication. In the first of these processes, the
nucleus divides, then the soft protoplasmic substance, and finally
a wall is formed along the divisional plane, in connection with
which the siliceous matter for the valve of each daughter frustule
is deposited. As a result of conjugation, according to Smith,
two parent frustules may give rise to one or two sporangia ; or the
valves of a single frustule may separate, and the contents increase
so as to form two sporangia, or in other case finally condense into
a single sporangium. In the case of sporular multiplication, which
has been regarded as sufficient to account for the enormous multi-
tudes of some species, — the other modes of multiplication explaining
the rarity of others, — the protoplasmic contents break up into a
number of sporules, which form the starting-points of new frustules.
Examples of this have been observed by O'Meara, Castracane, and
others. The exact nature of the so-called auxospores has been
disputed. By Pfitzer they are looked upon as the starting-point of
a new descending series of forms, being produced only after any
given species has been reduced to its minimum size by successive
temnogenetic processes. This interpretation of their function thus
implies that increase of the silicified cell-wall does not take place
during or subsequent to fission. But Smith has given figures of
frustules that go to show that such increase may go on ; and the
belief has been held by some that the auxospores are more pro-
perly abnormal structures, to be regarded rather as the expiring
phases of the Diatom than as the means of inaugurating a new
and vigorous series of forms.

From the geological point of view, Diatoms play an important
role. Their habits as marine or fresh-water may be made use of in
determining the exact mode of origin of geological deposits ; while
the enormous banks of frustules in course of formation, found in
recent times by Hooker in the Antarctic Ocean, and more lately
by the naturalists of the Challenger/ go to show how these great
deposits may have originated. The persistence of some genera
and species from Carboniferous or even Silurian times to the
present day is noteworthy.

It is of great importance to observe that Diatoms sometimes
occur on the surface of the sea in enormous masses, and give a
characteristic tinge to the ocean water. This is not unfrequently
the case with Rhizosoleni^ and Thalassiosira, isolated specimens
of which not unfrequently occur in the Firth of Forth ; and such
aggregations are of importance from the fact that they may influence
the formation of deposits at the mouths of rivers, of sediment in
harbours, and so on.

It may be interesting to append a short list of some of the
species of Diatoms which have recently been observed floating on

^ ' Proc. Roy. Soc. of London, ' vol. xxiv. p. 533.

1884-85.]

Edinburgh Naturalists' Field Club.

249

the surface of the waters of the Firth of Forth.^ They inchule
specimens of —

A. E-APHIDIE^.

Pleurosigma

strigosum.
balticum.

It

forniosum.

II

fasciola.

Cocconeis

scutellum.

Navicula

aspera.

II

distans.

II

digitoradiata

It

interrupta.

It

convexa.

II

tumida.

Amphiprora

II

striolata.
vitrea.

B. PSEUDORAPHIDIE.E.

K-aphoneis ampliiceros.

11 belgica.
Rliabdonema minutum.

II

arcuatuni.

Diatoma

niininiuni.

Nitzschia
II

sigma.
constricta.

ti
II

punctata,
closteriuni.

Dimereeramma minus.

Surirella ovalis.
Thalassiotrix nitzschioides.

C. Cryptoraphidie^.

Coscinodiscus concinnus.

II centralis.

II radiatus.

ti fimbriatus.

II excentricus.

II minor.

II polyacanthiis.

1 1 perforatus.

Biddulphia aurita.

1 1 gi'anulata.

Auliscus sculptus.
Actinocyclus crassus.

1 1 Ralfsii.

Actinoptychus undulatus.
Hyalodiscus stelliger.
Chaetoceros boreale.

II decipiens.

II incurvuui.

Melosira sulcata.
Syndendrium diadema.
Rhizosolenia styliformis.
Thalassiosira Nordenskioldii.
Cerataulus turgidus.

Species of frondose forms, such as Schizonema Grrevilii, are not
uncommon in the tidal belt. They often occur attached to various
Algas, such as Polysiphonia? and Ceramia, and not unfrequently
bear other Diatoms on the sides of their muco-gelatinous filaments,
such as Synedra gracilis, Khipidophora elongata, Grammatophora
marina, Amphitetras antediluviana, &c.

Various fresh-water species have also from time to time been
noted, among which may be mentioned the following : —

A. Raphidie^e.

Amphoi'a ovalis.
Cymbella scotica.

11 helvetica.
Pleurosigma attenuatimi.

11 lacustre.

Navicula elliptica.

Navicula amphisbrena.

Gomphonema geminatum.

II acuminatum.

Cocconeis Thwaitesii.

B. PSEUDORAPHIDIE.E.

Epithemia gibba.
II turgida.

^ The classification of Diatoms at present generally accepted is that liy
Professor H. L. Smith, and may be found in the ' Lens,' vol. i., 1872. It is
based on the character of the raphe on the siliceous valves.

250 Transactio7is of the ' [Sess.

Fragilaria capucina. Diatoma elongatum.

Eunotia arcus. ' n n var. ;8.

Synedra splendens. i 11 vulgare.

It ulna. Nitzschia linearis

Tabellaria flocculosa.
Licmophora fiabellata (marine).
Grammatophora marina (marine).
Denticiila ocellata.

II tenuis.

sigmoidese.
C. Cryptoeaphidie^.

Isthmia nervosa (marine).
Cyclotella operculata.

X.—NOTE ON THE GENUS LAMIUM. '
By Mr MARK KING.
[Read Feb. 26, 1885.)

The Natural Order of the Labiatae, in which the genus Lamivjn is
found, is one of the best marked and most easily recognised of all
the botanical groups. The Labiates are confined to the temperate
regions of the earth, their number diminishing towards the tropics
and either pole. The Lamiums, or Dead-nettles, are perhaps the
best-known plants of the Order, — indeed they are so familiar to all,
that they are frequently passed by with, it may be, a single glance ;
and yet, like many of their humble neighbours, they possess a most
interesting structure, and well repay any labour which may be
spent in their study, as is evidenced by the remarks upon the
common Dead-nettle in Sir John Lubbock's most readable book on
the ' Fertilisation of Wild Flowers.' Although mainly following
Hooker, in his last edition of the ' Student's Flora of the British
Islands' — (the latest and best arrangement of our native plants) —
I may state that I have given some attention to the genus Lam.ium,
and would desire to add my own remarks from observation of the
living plant from time to time. Perhaps the most striking family
resemblance in the Lamiums is found in the whorled inflorescence,
■with the leafy bracts, these latter being often three or four times
as large as the leaves. The generic name is probably derived from
the Greek word for a throat, in allusion to another well-marked
characteristic — namely, the throat-like corolla. There are at
least Jive species of Lamium indigenous to, or thoroughly estab-
lished in, this country, and of these four may be considered as
generally distributed over Britain. The genus is conveniently
divided into annual and perennial plants, — the annual forms being
Lamium purpureum, L. intermedium, and L. amplexicaule ; while

1884-85.] Edinburgh Naturalists' Field Club. 251

the perennials are L. allram, with its ally L. maculatnm, and L.
Galeobdolon. Yet this division is not constant, for all the annual
specimens now exhibited are biennial plants — that is, all have
lived over the winter, and are now in their second year's growth,
if indeed not older. In mild seasons I find L. amplexicaule invari-
ably biennial, but L. purpureum is less persistent. The following
are the characteristic features of L. purpureum : leaves petioled
cordate crenate, whorls crowded, corolla-tube shorter than calyx,
bracts crowded with bases not overlapping, stem decumbent below.
This species has further been divided by some botanists into four
or five varieties, but these all partake less or more of the character
just given of the type. L. intermedium, again, is a somewhat
anomalous species, rare and local, though very abundant where it
does occur. The history of this plant, as a separate species, is
noticed by the late Mr F. M. Webb, in an article in the ' Transac-
tions of the Botanical Society,' 1877, entitled *' On Plants in the
British Herbarium at the Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh." Mr
Webb says: "It was before the Society on 12th May 1836 that
Mr N. Tyacke read a paper, and illustrated it by specimens, to
show, that a Lcankuii, not uncommon in some parts of Scotland, was
L. intermedium of Fries ; and we possess specimens of his gathered
in the Edinburgh neighbourhood and in the Hebrides during that
vear." It is added that this plant " had previously been amal-
gamated— rather than confounded — with L. incisum." My own
observations of this plant, in its growing state, agree well with
Hooker's description, and I venture to give the result of these
observations — viz.. Leaves petioled orbicular cordate crenate,
whorls sub-terminal crowded, calyx slightly hairy, teeth spreading
in front much larger than the tube. The plant is intermediate in
character between L. purpureum and L. amplexicaule, but ap-
proaches very nearly the sub-species L. purpureum var. hybridum,
thouf>-h differing from it in having the corolla-tube longer than the
calyx. It is not a very easy plant to determine, contrasting in
this respect with L. amplexicaule, which is a well-marked species.
The specific name amplexicaule, or " stem-embracing," refers to the
mode of growth of tlie bracts or floral leaves. The following are
its characteristic features : Leaves petioled cordate reniform cren-
ate, bracts sessile lobed with upper small bases overlapping and
lower large not overlapping, calyx much longer than capsule, teeth
with long white hairs. The popular name of the plant, Henbit
Dead-nettle, is explained by some authorities to refer to the serra-
tures of the leaves, which appear as if cut by fowls. The popular
names of plants, however, are often obscure in their origin, as well
as frequently misleading. This plant, L. amplexicaule, has been
introduced into North America, and has a very wide geographical
range.

252 Transactions of the [Sess,

To treat now shortly of the 'perennial forms. There are, first, L.
album, the white Dead-nettle. This species seldom varies in habit
or general appearance, thus forming a marked contrast to its purple
relative, which sports, as above remarked, into several varieties.
Both the white and the purple forms may be found in flower nearly
the whole year round, and it becomes an interesting question how
these insect-fertilised plants, with such as Grorse, Butcher' s-Broom,
Daisy, and Dandelion, when flowering in winter, can be fertilised
at a season when the number of insects about is small indeed.
The difficulty is found to be met by self-fertilisation in this case,
the anthers discharging their pollen in the hud before the flower is
opened, as in the so-called " cleistogenous " flowers. A plant of L.
album, gathered in bud in the last week of December, showed the
stamens " completely curved down and brought into contact with
the bifid stigma — the pollen being at that time freely discharged
from the anthers." This mode of fertilisation in winter-flowering
plants which are normally insect-fertilised, is one worth testing
in order to place it on a still broader basis of fact. In the two
last editions of Hooker's ' Student's Flora,' L. album is stated to
be " rare and local in Scotland and Ireland." In all the localities
in the east of Scotland which I have visited, I have found this
plant always abundant, though by the botanists of the West of
Scotland it is reckoned a rare plant. I have been favoured, on
this point, with the following remarks from Mr E. Turner, a
Vice-President of the Natural History Society of Glasgow : " As to
the Dead-nettle [Lcmiiimi albuin)^ the plant is not at all common
in the Glasgow district. Our former local authorities — Hopkirk,
Patrick, and Hennedy — state in their Floras that it is frequent ;
but my own impression is, that ' rare and local ' is a much better
term. I have hardly ever seen it in any of the localities mentioned
by Hennedy, and where it does occur it exists in no great abun-
dance. I do not recollect seeing it anywhere about the Firth of
Clyde, or indeed along the West Coast at all. To the north of the
Firth of Clyde it is almost unknown, and it is certainly far from
common in the counties of Wigtown, Dumfries, and Kirkcudbright.
Even so far south as Lancashire, it is, I believe, scarce. I have
observed it in a few stations in the interior of the counties of
Lanark and Eenfrew ; but it does not in the least approach, even
in the places where it occurs, the profusion which it attains in
some eastern counties, as in Koxburghshire for instance, about
Kelso, where it makes every hedge-bank and waste place beautiful
in early summer. I observed a year or two ago, in our Eoyal
Botanic Gardens here, a label resting lonely on a plot for botanic
students bearing the words ' Lamium alburn,^ and not a single
plant anywhere. It does not seem to take kindly with our soil
or climate, and is a rarity compared with L. intermedium, Fries,

1884-85.] EdinbiirgJi Naturalists' Field Club. 253

which is frequent in the district." That it is indigenous, however,
is generally conceded. On the other hand, L. maculatum is not
accepted as indigenous anywhere in the British Islands. Thougli
closely allied to L. album, the calyx and corolla of this species are
different, the flowers fewer, the leaves more wrinkled ancl with the
white spots or blotches from which it derives its specific name.
About ten years ago a seedling was raised from the plant in the
neighbourhood of London, having yellow foliage, and named L.
maculatum aureum, and this form has been since extensively used
in carpet-bedding, and for front lines to flower-borders. In rich
soil, however, it reverts to the original type, and by no treatment
with suitable soil will it then return to the golden form. Seed-
lings from the species exhibit all the varieties of yellow, green,
and spotted foliage.

The last perennial species is L. Galeobdolon — a plant rejoicing
in the popular names of " Yellow Weasel-snout " (from the Greek
specific name) and " Archangel" It is not found native farther
north than Cumberland. Two localities are given for it in the
' Flora of Edinburgh,' somewhat wide apart — viz., Lomond Hills
and Dunglass ; but " introduced " is added. The specimen ex-
hibited was gathered near Airthrey Castle, Stirlingshire, Mr
Turner informs me that it appears to have become naturalised
in one or two stations in the neighbourhood of Glasgow. This
plant has been hustled about a good deal by botanists in their
different classifications, but seems to have settled now amongst the
Lamiums. Unlike the White and Purple Dead-nettles, which, as
already remarked, may be found in flower almost the whole year
round, the Yellow Dead-nettle flowers only from the middle of
April to the middle of June. Its bold and finely-cut foliage has
suggested its use as a bedding-plant.

I may add, in conclusion, that I have found the perennial Lami-
ums, as a whole, much more constant in habit then their annual
congeners.

VOL. I.

254 Transactions of the [Sess.

XL- LIST OF THE LESS COMMON PLANTS GATHERED AT
THE EXCURSIONS DURING 1884, WITH LOCALITIES.

Bt Mr ANDREW MOFFAT, Secretary.

At the meetings of 27th November and 26th December 1884, and
26th March 1885, the Secretary read a series of notes on the less
common plants gathered at the excursions of 1884 ; but as the list
of the plants, with their localities, is the only part of the notes of
permanent interest, that alone is given here. The following list
being strictly confined to the plants gathered at the Club's excur-
sions in 1884, is not to be considered as exhaustive in respect to
the rarer plants to be gathered within an easy distance of Edin-
burgh. Another list, it is hoped, will be contributed to the next
number of the Transactions, giving those plants gathered at the
excursions of 1885, where these differ from those of 1884. In this
list I have followed the arrangement of Hooker's ' Student's Flora,'
which is also that of the ' London Catalogue of British Plants.'

'O

Eanunculus hederaceus L. Ditches near West Linton.

Ranunculus Lingua L. Duddingston Loch.

Ranunculus sceleratus L. Duddingston Loch.

TroUius europaeus L. Caribber Glen, and banks of the Avon
near Canal aqueduct at Manuel.

Chelidonium majus L, Near Manuel ; a garden escape.

Glaucium luteum L. Seashore near Cockburnspath.

Corydalis lutea L. Near Manuel ; a garden escape.

Viola lutea Huds. Near West Linton ; variety with purple
flowers veiy abundant.

Silene inflata Sm. var. puberula. Borders of fields near Long-
niddrie station.

Lyclinis Viscaria L. Samson's Eibs.

This very rare plant owes its continued existence in this locality
to the inaccessible rocks on which it grows. It is still found
abundantly on the south of Blackford Hill, but in more accessible
places : now that this hill is about to be opened to the public, the
likelihood is that it will soon disappear from the Blackford locality.

Cerastium arvense L. Found sparingly on the Links at Gos-
ford.

Stellaria glauca L. Duddingston Loch.
Arenaria verna L.

This local plant was gathered abundantly on the rocks at the
Windy-Goul, Queen's Park, and other rocks on the soutli of
Arthur's Seat : it is also found on Blacliford Hill.

1884-85.] Edinburgh Naturalists Field Club. 255

Geranium sanguineum L.

Very abundant on Gosford Links, the patches of which would
cover several acres. To see this splendid plant in full flower in the
month of July would well repay a visit.

Geranium sylvaticum L. In Caribber Glen ; very plentiful.

Euonymus europaeus L. Foot of Pease Dene, Cockburnspath.

Genista anglica L. Tyneliead.

Trifolium arvense L. Queen's Park.

Astragalus hypoglottis L. Gosford Links ; plentiful.

Vicia sylvatica L.

This rare plant was gathered abundantly on the clifls on the side
of the Lyne, near West Linton.

Lathyrus macrorhizus Wimm. On tlie roadside from "West Lin-
ton to Dolpliinton,

Rubus saxatilis L. Banks of the Lyne above West Linton.

Rubus caesius L. Eoadside between Cockburnspath and Pease
Bridge.

Potentilla Comarum Nestl. Marshes near Bavelaw and foot of
Black Hill, Cunie.

Potentilla reptans L. Gosford Links.

Agrimonia Eupatoria L. Gosford Links.

Saxifraga tridactylites L. Wall-top between Gosford and Aber-
lady.

Saxifraga granulata L. Gosford Links.

Saxifraga hypnoides L. Banks of the Lyne above West Linton.

Sedum villosum Ij. In a bog by the roadside between West
Linton and Dolpliinton.

Drosera rotundifolia L. In a bog near Bavelaw.

Hippuris vulgaris L. Duddingston Loch.

Astrantia major L. Well established in a partially disused road
leading from Caribber Glen to Canal aqueduct ; a garden escape.

Sanicula europaea L. Caribber Glen.

Conium maculatum L. Inchcolm. Plants growing most luxuri-
antly nearly 6 feet high.

Slum angustifolium L. In ditches at the foot of the road leading
from Longniddrie station to the beach at Gosfoi'd.

CEnanthe crocata L. Same station.

Ligusticum scoticum L. A very local plant : was gathered on
Inchcolm, and at the mouth of Pease Burn, Cockburnspath.

Caucalis nodosa Scop. Queen's Park on the bank between
Samson's Eibs and railway.

Linnsea borealis Gronov. In a fir wood on the Bavelaw Burn
3 miles from Balerno station.

Linnrea borealis has been known in this locality for about fifteen
years, and was pi'obably introduced to it some few years before that

256 Transactions of the [Sess.

time. It is now thoroughly established, and no fitter station than
this could have been chosen for the plant. By the assistance of a
friend, I was enabled to discover another locality for the plant,
about two miles distant. It was first noticed as a British plant by
Professor James Beattie, jun., in an old fir wood at Inglismaldie, on
the borders of Kincardine, in 1795.

Valeriana dioica L. In a bog between West Linton and Dol-
phinton.

Valeriana officinalis L. Caribber Glen.

Dipsacus sylvestris L. Inchcolm,

Centaurea Scabiosa L. Found near the seashore half a mile
east from North Berwick.

This somewhat rare plant is known to occur from Gosford to
North Berwick ; and the only other locality from which I have
obtained specimens is on the other side of the Firth, directly oppo-
site— viz., Kilconquhar.

Eupatorium cannabinum L. Pease Mill, and near railway sta-
tion at Cockburnspath.

Inula dysenterica L. Foot of road leading from Longniddrie
station to beach.

Antennaria dioica Br. Between West Linton and Dolphinton.

Filago germanica L. Queen's Park.

Doronicum Pardalianches L. Caribber Glen ; naturalised.

Hieracium aurantiacum L. Side of railway between Manuel
and Causewayend ; an escape.

Oxycoccos palustris Pers. In a marsh by the side of Slipperfield
Loch, West Linton.

Pyrola minor Sw. Fir plantation by the side of Bavelaw Burn.

Erythraea Centarium Pers. Gosford Links.

Menyanthes trifoliata L. Slipperfield Loch West Linton.

Symphytum officinale L. Near Caribber Glen.

Myosotis sylvatica Hoffm. Banks of Lyne above West Linton.

Cynoglossum officinale L. Gosford.

Hyoscyamus niger L. Inchcolm.

Solanum Dulcamara L. Gosford.

Verbascum Thapsus L. Inchcolm.

Scrophularia vernalis L. Gosford ; an escape.

Primula vulgaris Huds. var. caulescens. North Berwick.

Primula farinosa L. In a bog between West Linton and Dol-
phinton.

This, the only Scottish station for this plant, I have visited annually
during the last eight years, and have always found the plant plen-
tiful. The only chance of extermination is the draining of the bog
and the encroachments of agriculture, of which there are evident
signs. In view of its extermination ia this locality, I am happy to
state that our President is taking means to have it introduced into
similar habitats in the Pentlands.

1884-85-] Edinburgh Naturalists' Field Club. 257

Orchis incarnata L. Gosford Links,
Habenaria viridis Br. Gosford Links.

Listera cordata Br. Fir wood on Bavelaw Burn near Balerno.
Neottia Nidus-avis L. Caribber Glen.
Galanthus nivalis L. Amiston ; naturalised.
Milium effusum L. Caribber Glen.
Melica nutans L. Caribber Glen.
Melica uniflora Retz. Caribber Glen.
Aspidium angulare Willd. Pease Dene.

Botrychium Lunaria S\v. On a mound midway between West
Linton and Dolpliiuton, in great abundance.

XII.— NOTE ON TEE SQUIRREL {SOIURUS EUROP^US).

By Mr JOHN THOMSON, Stobo.

{Communicated by The Secretary, March 26, 1885.)

Though now so common in most parts, the Squirrel, as is well
known, was at a period not so very remote unknown in Scot-
land, having been introduced from England only in the early part
of the present century. In the parish of Stobo, Peeblesshire, where
the following observations were noted, the animal seems to have
made its first appearance about the year 1825. A forester who had
lived in the district for the better half of a century related to me
that, about the year just mentioned, while engaged one day with his
assistants in the woods, their curiosity was aroused by the sight of
a strange little creature, which ran up a tree in making its escape.
One of the men, whose proclivities tended towards natural history,
but who was unaware of the leaping powers of the animal, climbed
up the tree with an eye to its capture, but it is almost needless to
remark that his somewhat quixotic attempt was not crowned with
success. It is more than probable that this individual specimen
was among the first of its order to arrive in the district.

Few quadrupeds are more pleasing, amusing, and interesting in
their habits ; yet to see the Squirrel in the full enjoyment of life, a
little stealth is necessary, because if you come within his range
of vision, his actions are restrained, and, though you may not
think so, his eye is always upon you. When you come iipon one
unobserved, and watch him for a little, his movements are seen to
be much more lively and sportive: he frisks and gambols along the

258 Transactiojis of the [Sess.

brandies, pries into crevices in quest of hidden food, ventures out
almost to the extremity of very slender twigs, sits up on his hind
legs, and throws himself into a variety of curious attitudes. Should
another Squirrel come upon his feeding-ground, the speed and agility
displayed in the ensuing chase is most wonderful, and probably
exceeds what any one unacquainted with his powers would imao-ine
him capable of In the food on which the Squirrel subsists there
is considerable variety. Fir-cones, beech-nuts, acorns, and haw-
thorn-berries are staple articles of diet ; young shoots of the Spruce
Fir are also frequently gnawed through, to enable him to eat out the
heart of the small buds which grow around the stem of the shoot ;
and, unfortunately for his own preservation, his somewhat- omniv-
orous appetite leads him even to attack the bark of trees. The
different species of Pines are those generally attacked, and, in some
instances, serious injury is done to the tree. In an old wood I
once saw many large Scotch Firs with long strips of bark eaten off
from the upper part of their trunks, and on some of the trees there
were bare patches six or eight feet long, and about half a foot
broad. The occasional indulgence of this taste marks out the
Squirrel as an animal to be destroyed ; and in the interests of
forest preservation there is, I own, a necessity for keeping their
numbers within certain limits. But that is all that requires to be
done, for when in moderate numbers, any injury inflicted will, I
think, only be of trifling consequence.

About October the Squirrels leave the large pine-w^oods, where,
during the summer, the most of them have been rearing their
offspring, and spread themselves into more open ground. Clumps
and groves are then visited, and excursions made from these to
straggling trees in search of food. At this season they may often
be seen on the ground feeding on the seeds and nuts which have
fallen from the trees. When they arrive at a spot where food is
abundant, a halt is made, and slioidd a suitable abode for the night
be near, in the shape of a few Fir trees, residence is there taken up.
If such a spot be in the vicinity of dwellings, the Squirrel very
soon, if unmolested, becomes so familiar as to sit on the ground
and eat with composure while you are looking at him six or seven
yards off. When moving forward, where the trees stand some dis-
tance apart, much caution is used to ensure safety. The nearest
tree is made for at full speed, and vphen that is reached, a survey
is made all around to see that no danger threatens. Then, with-
out ascending the tree, off he starts to the next. If pursued, the
Squirrel does not seek refuge in the nearest tree if it be small, but
pushes on to a larger. At times, however, he would seem to be
more venturesome, for one was brought to me by a person who
killed it out on a hill. If htmted from tree to tree, some notable
leaps are taken from the point of one branch to another ; and I

1 884-8 5-] Edinburgh Naturalists' Field Club. 259

remember to have seen one jump from tlie summit of a tree to the
ground, a height of about forty feet. It was not in the least
stunned, as might have been expected, but ran off at once along
the ground.

A very pleasing exhibition of parental affection and instinct of
the Squirrel on behalf of its young came under my notice a few
years ago. While proceeding along a footpath wliich led through
a wood, I observed one coming along the ground towards the path
a short distance in front of me. By its peculiar motion and slow
pace, I saw that there was an interruption to its progress, which
became manifest when it emerged from the grass and crossed the
path. It was carrying a young Squirrel in its mouth. Arriving
at the base of a good-sized tree, it began to ascend ; but to do so
while thus encumbered proved to be no easy matter. The diffi-
culty was, however, surmounted ; for when I got up to the tree and
obtained a near view of the pair, the old Squirrel had quitted its
hold, and the young one, with its fore-legs round its parent's neck,
clung closely to its breast. Thus relieved, the heroic creature very
soon reached the summit of the tree, crossed by leaps to several
others, and finally settled in a large Spruce Fir. A high wind,
which was blowing at the time, had most probably shaken the
young Squirrel from its nest. On another occasion, after a gale
in winter, a nest was found one morning on the ground, blown
from a tree, and on its being overturned a Squirrel bolted from it.
It may be imagined that the poor Squirrel was greatly dismayed
at the downfall of his habitation, but he showed commendable
coolness in retaining the benefit of its shelter as long as he could.

Enjoying comparative immunity from attacks of predatory birds
and animals, having generally at all times a supply of food at hand
to meet his wants, and possessing powers which enable him to roam
and gambol at ease in his own peculiar haunts, the Squirrel seems
to pass a happy, joyous existence. Each creature has been provi-
dentially and benevolently endowed with instincts which are in
sympathy with its mode of life, but all have not capabilities alike
to enjoy the latter. In this respect the Squirrel seems to stand on
a higher pinnacle than many others.

At this meeting Mr Grieve made a few extempore remarks on
the occurrence of the Pine-marten in Scotland.

26o

Transactions of the

[Sess.

MEETINGS OF MICROSCOPIC SECTION.

Six meetings for practical work with the microscope were held
during the Session under the presidency of Dr J. M. Macfarlane,
all of which were numerously attended.

At the first meeting (6th November 1884) a demonstration on
the structure and mode of preparation of the glands of Nepenthes
was given by Dr Macfarlane and Mr A. D. Richardson. The
second meeting (5th December 1884) was devoted to a description
of various forms of microtomes, with a demonstration of the methods
of cutting sections, by Mr Alexander Frazer, M.A., optician. The
following is a brief notice of improved forms of ether and imbed-
ding microtomes, as submitted by Mr Frazer : —

IMPROVED FORMS OF ETHER AND IMBEDDING
MICROTOMES.

The appliance illustrated in fig. 1 is part of a microtome in
which the Cathcart method of freezing is adopted, and by which
sections are cut by the knife of Williams' (Swift's) microtome.
Experience having shown that the Williams' knife is an exceed-
ingly good form of section- cutter, and that the Cathcart method
of freezing is very convenient, the present instrument has been

desig-ned to combine the advantages of the knife and the method
of freezing already mentioned. A detailed explanation of the
instrument is hardly necessary. A stout brass tube is fixed to
the frame, which is the body of the instrument, and which sup-
ports a small insulated zinc plate, upon the under side of which a
spray of ether impinges as in the Cathcart microtome. The frame
also supports a glass plate, which is slightly below the level of the
zinc freezing-plate, and upon this glass plate the Williams' tripod

1884-85.]

Edinburgh Naturalists'' Field Club.

261

knife slides in the usual manner. The knife is not shown in the
fiji;ure. The microtome shown in fig. 2 is designed for objects
which are imbedded in paratiin or other medium previous to cut-
ting. The instrument consists of the usual cylinder, piston, and

Fig. 2.

screw — the novel point in its construction being, that tlie upper
part on which the section-knife slides is provided with glass rails
similar to those used in the Catlicart microtome, and that the
instrument is made to be fixed to the table by a separate clamp,
and not by means of a screw which presses one part of the micro-
tome from the other when binding it to its support.

At the third meeting (9th January 1885) a lecture was delivered
by Mr A. N. Mac Alpine, B.Sc, on " The Woody Tissue of Plants :
its Arrangement in Root, Stem, and Leaf, and its Detection" — the
lecture being illustrated by the lantern. At the fourth meeting
(5th February 1885) Mr Alexander Frazer drew the attention of
members to the construction of Brooke's double nose-piece for the
microscope, and explained the adjustment of the same ; while Mr
A. D. Richardson gave a demonstration on double-staining, which
was much appreciated by the members, and furnished matter for
some discussion. At the fifth meeting (6th March 1885) a further
explanation of double-staining, with an exhibition of double-stained
objects, was made by Messrs Richardson and Henderson ; while Dr
Macfarlane made a communication on " Recent Advances in the
History of Cell-Formation." The sixth and concluding meeting
(6th April 1885) was occupied by a demonstration on Photo-
Micrography, by Mr William Forgan. The following is Mr
Forgan's explanation of the process : —

PHOTO-MICROGRAPHY.

Tlie term Photo-micrography means the production of enlarged
photographic pictures of microscopic objects by means of a micro-

262 Transactions of the [Sess.

scope and a pliotograpliic camera. Another term, Micro-photog-
raphy, has a different meaning, and is applied to the production
of photographic pictures of large objects on a microscopic scale, —
small enough, in fact, to enable a microscopic object-glass of medium
power to see the whole of the picture in the field of the microscope
at one time. It is, however, only with Photo-micrography, the first
of the above terms, that I am to deal just now.

Three things are essentially necessary to enable any one to
produce good Photo-micrographs. These are — (1) A competent
knowledge of photography ; (2) a considerable knowledge of micro-
scopic manipulation ; and (3) good apparatus, especially good
microscope object-glasses. As to the first of these, I have had an
experience of over a dozen years, more or less. As to the second,
I have had a large and varied experience with the microscope for
over thirty years, and during that period I have seen and handled
object-glasses by nearly every European maker of any note. As to
the third, I have at present a very excellent series of glasses, about
eighteen in number, extending from a four-inch up to Powell &
Lealand's famous water-immersion one-eighth. I merely mention
these facts to show that I am not a novice in the management of
the apparatus I am about to show you.

In the production of Photo-micrographs, the first thing to do is
to have the camera and the microscope both firmly mounted on a
board. That now before you is about 3 feet 6 inches long, and
about 10 inches broad, by an inch thick to give it strength and
stability. It might with advantage be longer and a little broader.
The small camera, you will notice, is mounted at one end of the
board, on a platform raised about two inches above it. This is done
to cause the centre of the focusing screen of the camera to coincide
with the optical axis of the microscope when the latter is bent
back to allow its tube to enter the camera. The camera before you
is that known as quarter-plate size — that is, the size of the sensitive-
plate is ^\ inches by 3|-. This plate is generally large enough for
the purpose. If larger pictures than can be had in this way are
wanted, it is only necessary to have enlarged pictures printed
direct from negatives of that size. The camera has a pretty long
bellows, enabling it to be drawn out about 18 inches. The micro-
scope used is a plain one, with a very delicate fine adjustment,
and rack-and-pinion coarse adjustment. This latter is almost
an essential requisite in Photo-micrography, if ease and com-
fort in manipulation are desired. The microscope used has a
very large tube, more than 1;^ inch in diameter. This gives,
with the length of camera Tised, a large field, and enables the light
to fill the whole of the plate except the corners. The microscope
is connected with the camera by means of a conical hood of double
thickness of black calico, which is attached to the camera at the

1884-85.] Edinburgh Naturalists' Field Club. 263

larger end — the smaller end being drawn over the end of the
microscope tube and tied with a string. Both the camera and the
microscope are attached to the board by means of small brass bolts
and screws, and both can be shifted along the board either way by
means of a narrow central opening, — the opening for the microscope
being on the board itself, and that for the camera in the top of the
platform on which it stands.

The lamp I use is a small microscope lamp, with a half inch
wick. I find this lamp gives sufficient illumination, even for very
high powers. For powers up to half-inch, the ordinary bull's-eye
condenser in front of the lamp gives quite enough light to enable
one to work with short exposures ; and when using higher powers,
an achromatic condenser is used to further concentrate the light.
I never use the microscope with the eye-piece in. AVithout the
eye-piece I get a sharper, better-lighted picture, and therefore a
quicker exposure. Of course, the magnification in the camera is
correspondingly less. With this camera, for instance, fully drawn
out, the magnifying power, tested with Smith & Beck's micrometer
and Zeiss's quarter-inch objective, is only 125. The image on the
sensitive plate is, however, without the eye-piece, much finer and
sliarper. When you have few object-glasses, it may be necessaiy
sometimes to use an eye-piece to bring up the power to what
you want ; but it is much better to do without the eye-piece, if
possible.

A great deal has been said and written about the non- coinci-
dence of the chemical or actinic and the visual foci of microscopic
object-glasses. I do not find in practice that I experience any
difficulty on that ground. My glasses were all chosen for their
good qualities as microscopic objectives simply, and with no view
whatever to their use for photography. I have never required
with any of them to apply any correction for the actinic focus.
I simply get as sharp a focus on the camera screen as I can with
powerful magnifiers, and I can be absohitely certain that I shall
get a correspondingly sharp photographic negative. This will
not apply, however, to object-glasses with only one combination.
My experience is, that glasses of that description do require correc-
tion for the chemical focus.

I use an ordinary piece of ground-glass to focus the image of
the object in the camera in the first instance, and to get the light
nicely in the centre of the screen ; but this is far too coarse for
the final adjustment, and when finally adjusting the focus I put
in a screen formed of a piece of plain glass, one side of which
has been daubed slightly over with glazier's putty, and then spread
over the glass with long strokes by the forefinger ; or a similar
piece of glass which has been rubbed over slightly with virgin-wax,
— then the glass is slightly heated to melt the wax, and rubbed in

264 Transactions of tJie [Sess.

the same way to spread it over the glass. The film in both cases
must be very thin, and just sufficient left on the glass to see
that it is there and no more.

With microscopic objects that polarise well, polarised light is
of very great assistance in Photo-micrography. It brings the
various markings into greater contrast — differentiating them in such
a way that they are much more easily photographed, and give
better results. The exposure in such a case is, however, much
more prolonged. What would require, with transmitted light, say
fifteen seconds, with polarised light requires five minutes.

The demonstration I propose to give you to-night is to photo-
micrograph the palate of the Whelk, and to do so by polarised light.
After placing the slide on the stage of the microscope, and fixing it
in the position I wish it to be, I place the lamp in position, — and this
must be carefully adjusted as to the height of the flame, as it also
must be placed in the optical axis of the object-glass, or as nearly so
as may be. I then place the bull's-eye condenser at the distance of
its own focus from the lamp, and between it and the stage. I place
the polarising prism under the stage, and on the top of the prism
I place a selenite, giving a blue tint, as I wish to produce a strong
colour in the object. The analysing prism is, of course, placed
over the object-glass. The glass I shall use is a Zeiss's " aa," —
what is termed on the glass itself a fth. It gives one of the
flattest fields I have ever seen in any glass, and the most beatitiful
definition to the very margin of the field. I place the microscope-
tube in the hood in the front of the camera, and tie it on. I
should perhaps have mentioned before that the tube should either
be lined with black velvet or receive a coating of dead black by
mixing lamp-black in lacquer and painting the inside of the tube
with one coat and setting fire to the spirit. One coat is enough
if the mixture is thick enough. This leaves a fine dead black
surface, and not a glossy one as when more than one coat is
given. The only thing now to do is to see that the illumination
is exactly in the centre of the optic axis. To do this, remove
the focusing screen and look through the camera and microscope
tube. If the image of the flame is seen in the centre of the
tube, all is well ; but if not, the lamp must be altered in such
a way as to accomplish this end. No pains must be spared in
doing this, as upon it depends entirely whether your negative
will be a success or a failure. It is very easy to do with low
powers, but when using high powers and an achromatic condenser,
it is sometimes a matter of ten minutes' work to get the light right
in the optic axis. When that is accomplished, and the apparatus
firmly secxired to the board, and the light fairly in the centre of
the screen, you may at once proceed to expose the plate. As I
am using now polarised light, I shall give this object — although

1884-85-] EdinburgJi Naturalists' Field Club. 265

I use a low power — an exposure of five minutes. [The plate was
then exposed and developed in the presence of the meeting ; and,
although it was not carried so far as printing density, turned out a
perfect success.]

I think the above explanation affords all the necessary and
essential information to enable any of the members who wish to
try it to start work. Yet to every beginner there are innumerable
difficulties starting up before they acquire the necessary skill and
dexterity from practice. If any such are members of this Societ}^,
I only add that I shall be too pleased to give them every help and
advice they may require, so far as in my power.

At the meetings several members exhibited interesting micro-
objects ; Mr Forgan distributed a number of beautiful photo-
micrographs ; and unmounted preparations were given to the mem-
bers present to be mounted at home — the proper methods to be
followed in mounting being in each case indicated. The objects
distributed included preparations from the following : —

Vegetable.

Aerial root of Orchis.

Bryopsis plumosa, with Diatoms in

situ.
Stem of Selaginella cfesia.
Petiole of Nymphtea alba.
Stem of Pinus sylvestris (clouble-

staiiied).

Leaf and stem of Hoya carnosa.

Stem of Xanthochymus.

Root of Pandanus graminifolius.

Peziza tectoria.

Stemonitis fusca.

Fucus vesiculosus.

C'allithamnion Rothii.

Animal.
Kidney, liver, and tongue — human and other — stained and double-injected.

The Annual Conversazione on 17th April took largely the form
of a microscopic exhibition ; and as an interesting record of what
was then shown, a copy of the Programme distributed on that
evening will be found at the end.

ANNUAL BUSINESS MEETINGS.

The Annual Business Meeting of the Club for Session 1884-85 was
held on the evening of the 24th October 1884. The Secretary and
Treasurer submitted his Statements, which were approved of.
At this meeting an alteration of the Laws was made, to the
effect that there shall be three Vice - Presidents, instead of one

266 Transactions of the [Sess.

as formerly. The various Office-bearers having been elected,
the list for 1884-85 stood as under, viz. : —

President.— A. B. Herbert.

Vice-Presidents.

P. B. GiBB, M.A. I T. B. Sprague, M.A., F.R.S.E. | J. M. Macfarlane, D.Sc.

Robert Thomson.
George Bird.
RoBEiiT Stewart.
Dr L. Dobbin.

Council.

John Walgot.
Symington Grieve.
Geobge L. BitowN.
Charles Fraser.

John Rattray, M.A. B.So.
Archibald Craig., Jun.
W. I. MacAdam,F.C.S., F.I.O.
Alexander Frazer, M.A.

Honorary Secretary and Treasurer. — Andrew Moffat.
Auditors. — Alex. Matheson, M.A., W.S. ; J. A. Brodie.

The Financial Statement showed an income, including balance
from previous account, of £69, 13s. 5|d., and an expenditure of
£44, 2s. 49^d., leaving a balance of £25, lis. Id. iif favour of the
Club.

During the past Session there had been held 32 meetings, of
which 12 were indoor meetings and 20 were field meetings, with
an average attendance of 50. Tlie following is a detailed list of
the meetings — viz.: Ordinary Evening Meetings, 1883 — 26th Oct.,
29th Nov., 27th Dec. ; 1884— 24th Jan., 28t-,h Feb., and 27th
March. Microscopic Meetings, 1883 — 6th Dec. ; 1884 — 3d Jan., 31st
Jan., 6th March, and 3d April. Conversazione — 8th April, 1884.
Field Meetings, 1884— 23d Feb., Arniston ; 15th March, Arthur
Seat •, 22d March, Shore at Granton ; 29th March, Hailes Quarry ;
3d May, Sections on Suburban Eailway ; 10th May, North Ber-
wick ; 17th May, Sections on Suburban Eailway (second excursion) ;
24th May, South Ferry and Forth Bridge Works; 31st May,
Crichton to Tynehead ; 7th June, Caribber Glen ; 11th June,
Eestalrig Church and Neighbourhood ; 14th June, Dolphinton to
West Linton; 21st June, Gosford ; 25th June, Duddingston ;
28th June, Cockburnspath for Pease Dene ; 5th July, Balerno ;
12th July, Inchcolm ; 19th July, Colinton and the Pentlands ;
26th July, Currie and the Pentlands ; 6th Sept., Joppa Quarry.

During Session 1883-84, 16 names of m miners were withdrawn
from the roll, and 60 new members added, making a net increase
of 44 and a total ordinary membership of 190.

[It having been thought advisable to bring the record of the
proceedings of the Club iip to the present date (October 1885),
the Statement embodying these, read at the Annual Business
Meeting for Session 1885-86, is here given.]

1884-85.] Edinburgh Naturalists' Field Club. 267

The Annual Business Meeting of the Club was held on the evening
of October 23, 1885 — Mr A. B. Herbert occupying the chair. The
usual Statements by the Secretary and Treasurer were laid before
the meeting, and unanimously approved of. By the Financial
Statement, it was shown that the total income for Session 1884-85,
including a balance from last account, was £81, 2s., and that the
expenditure was £51, 3s. 5d., thus leaving a surplus at that date
in favour of the Ch;b of £29, I8s. 7d. The meetings held during
the Session were 30 in number — 13 of these being indoor meetings,
and 17 field meetings, with an average attendance at all the meet-
ings of 54. The following list gives the dates of the indoor meet-
ings, and the dates and localities of the field meetings, viz. : —

Indook Meetings : (1) Ordinarjj Evening ]\Ieidings, 1884 — Oct.
24, Nov. 27, Dec. 26; 1885— Jan. 29, Feb. 26, March 26. (2)
Microscopic Meetings, 1884 — Nov. 6, Dec. 5; 1885 — Jan. 9, Feb. 5,
March 6, April 2. (3) Annual Conversazione — April 17, 1885.

Field Meetings, 1885: Feb. 21, Arniston ; May 2, Scottish
Marine Station, Granton ; May 9, North Berwick ; May 16, Haw-
thornden and Roslin ; May 23, Dalhousie ; May 30, Dysart and
Wemyss ; June 3, Blackford Hill; June 6, Midcalder ; June 13,
North Queensferry ; June 17, Craigmillar ; June 20, West Linton;
June 27, Caribber Glen ; July 1, Union Canal ; July 4, Inchkeith
(with Dredging in Forth); July 11, Aberlady ; July 25, Balerno ;
Sept. 26 (" Fungus foray "), Roshn.

The election of Office-bearers for Session 1885-86 was next pro-
ceeded with, and the following is the complete list, as then
adjusted, viz.: — -

President.— Symington Giueve.

Vice-Presidents.

T. B. Sprague, M.A., F.R.S.E. | J. M. Macfarlane, D.Sc. | A. Frazer, M.A.

John Walcot.
John Allan.
George L. Brown.
Charles Fraser.

Council.

John Rattray, M.A.,B.Sc.
Archibald Gkaig, Jun.
W. I. MacAdam, F.C.S., F.I.C.
A. D. Richardson.

William Forgan.
William Bonxar.
John Henderson.
A. B. Steele.

Honorary Secretary and Treasurer.— Andrew Moffat.
Auditors. — John A. Marshall, C.A. ; Hugh H. Pillans.

The membership of the Club for Session 1884-85 stood at the
close as follows : 26 names were withdrawn from the roll, and
50 new members were admitted, giving a net increase of 24 — which,
added to the ordinary membership of 190 for the previous Session,
makes a total at the present date of 214. Owing to the steady

268 Transactions of the Edin. Nat. Field Club. [Sess. 1884-85.

increase in the membership of the Club, it had become imperative
to leave the old place of meeting at No. 5 St Andrew Square, and
to find more commodious rooms, which have now been secured at
No. 20 George Street, After the disposal of the business, several
members threw out various hints for the better conduct and greater
efficiency of the Club, in view of the new departure which had thus
been made. The meeting closed with a hearty and unanimous
vote of thanks, on the motion of Dr Macfarlane, to the retiring
President, Mr A. B. Herbert, for the keen interest he had taken in
all the affairs of the Club during the three years he had been in
office, as well as for the valuable contributions he had made to its
' Transactions ' in the very interesting papers read from time to
time.

ERRATA ON ART., "THE HYMENOMYCETES. "

The following list of errata was received too late for correcting the
text of the above-named paper — viz. :

Page 212, line 28, /o?* "colour" read "odour."

214, ,, 30, /or " comestus " read " comatus. "

214, ,, 37, /or "cortiles" read "tortilis."

214, ,, 38, /or " aliamentarius " read " atramentarius."

215, ,, 17, /or " volunum " read " volemus."
215, ,, 26, for " Smilus" read ''SuiUus."
215, ,, 39, /or "Vitt^lini" read '<Vittellini."
217, ,, 14, /or "Monkhamorr" read "Moukhamorr."
217, ,, 20, /or " Meruleus " read " Merulius. "

I.— OPENING ADDRESS.
By Mr SYMINGTON GRIEVE, President.
{Read Nov. 20, 1885.)

The first duty I have to perform is to express my thanks for the
honour you have conferred upon me, in making me your President
for the coming year, I feel deeply that you have placed me in a
position of considerable difficulty, as I cannot expect to fulfil the
duties of President in tlie same satisfactory way they have been
done by the accomplished Naturalist whose term of office has just
expired. I am sure each of you will join with me in expressing to
him our grateful thanks for the manner in which he has striven to
promote the interests of the Club, which has progressed in member-
ship and usefulness by strides and bounds during the last three
years. I hoj)e he, and other past Presidents, may long be spared
to attend our meetings, and to manifest the interest they have ever
shown in the welfare and prosperity of the Club.

Having elected me to the honourable position of presiding at
your meetings, it will be my earnest desire to try and increase
their usefulness. I think it is possible tliat we may devise a more
systematic way of working, so that in all we do, it may be with
the object of studying some special subject or subjects in a more
thorough and searching way than we have done in the years gone
by. You will notice I use the word " we," for unless you are, each
of you, willing to unite earnestly in doing your best to aid the
Council in trying to inaugurate more systematic modes of investiga-
tion, they cannot hope or expect to attain the satisfactory resiilts
they would like. We must rely upon each of you feeling an
individual responsibility, and doing your utmost to make our meet-
ings and publication a success.

With the advantages we now possess, it will be a shame to us
if we allow our powers to lie doi'mant, and the opportunity to pass
without striking out into new branches of study. To some extent
the Council have provided for the occasion, and have agreed to
relieve our able Secretary of the arduous task of arranging for the
papers to be brought before our meetings. However, it seems to
me that this is only a beginning ; for it must now devolve to a
great extent upon the members of the Club to keep up a continual
supply of material in the way of papers for the Council to choose
from. I trust the time is not far distant when you will emulate

VOL. I. T

2/0 Transactions of the [Sess.

each other as to whose contributions will prove most worthy of
being read, and that each will covet the honour, and that it will be
accepted as a token of no sroall attainments when a paper is selected
for our meetings.

For systematic work, we must appoint standing committees for
each of the following subjects — namely, Fauna, Flora, G-eology,
Archaeology, and Microscopy ; and it will be the duty of the
members of such standing committees to find out the subjects on
which each member of the Club has special knowledge, or which
they propose to study. Having found out this, it will be the effort
of each committee to direct, aid, and encourage members in their
studies, so that in time they may write papers for the meetings of
the Society. I feel sure if each of these committees was started
under the care of an energetic convener, they would together do
splendid work, and promote our best interests as a scientific Club.
From my own standpoint, I think the sooner they are started the
better for the Club, We have good proof of this in the success
that has attended the meetings of the Microscopic section under the
presidency of Dr Macfarlane, and I trust we are only at the begin-
ning of that success. It has long been my belief that nothing would
do more to popularise and make the w^ork of this section even more
interesting than it has been, than the reflection of magnified living
organisms upon a screen, when the life-history, structure, and habits
of such organisms could be studied and explained. I can conceive
of no more profitable lessons from the book of Nature than we might
thus receive in this hall. I understand there are certain difiSculties
in the way of minute objects being clearly reflected tipon canvas ;
but from what I have seen at our meetings, I think sufScient success
has been attained to enable us to use this mode of illustrating a sub-
ject with great advantage, even though every detail of the picture
is not brought out as clearly as we would like. Besides, when such
difficulties cross our path, it should inspire us with a fresh resolu-
tion to do our best to overcome them ; and in a Club like this, we
have an opportunity of illustrating the old adage that " two heads
are better than one." I hope these difficulties will soon be satis-
factorily solved, and that Ave shall then acquire microscopic
apparatus that will enable us to enhance the attractiveness of our
meetings, and open up some pages of what is to a large extent, to
many of us, a sealed book.

The Field Club, to be of real use to its members, must be an
educational institution, and we must always have many schemes at
work, so as to develop the enthusiasm of every member in a greater
or less degree. Without enthusiasm, the Club will gradually decay
and die. When I think of the thorough training and splendid
equipment that some of you possess, combined with first-class
opportunities, I almost feel ashamed thus to address you. But J

1885-86.] Edinburgh Naturalists' Field Club. 271

cannot shut my eyes to the fact that it is 3^011 who are thus
equipped who must bear in the future, as you have done in the past,
the burden of working the Chib so as to make it a success. It is
to you that those of us who have been less fortunate in our oppor-
tunities or training look for assistance, encouragement, and help.
The younger members expect you to take them by the hand, and
trust to your kindness to point out to them those special subjects
that they may study with advantage ; and no one knows better
than I do how well and earnestly you have been endeavouring to
afford this aid. Let me say to those of you wlio have abstained
from joining our active work, that if you desire special knowledge
you must not hesitate to ask questions, and ever be ready to sup-
ply us with information when you can. I feel sure I am asserting
a fact when I say there is no one in this room without some special
knowledge or experience that would be valued by us, if we could
only discover it. I suppose there is no way to find out these
things except by getting each member to volunteer information
for our meetings. Long papers with elaborate details will be
quite unnecessary ; the narration of daily experiences or observa-
tions, stated as simple facts, is all that is required.

So much for our Winter Meetings : but need I remind you that
these are only auxiliaries to our actual Club work, and should be
used for recording the observations and discoveries that have been
made in the field. The name " Naturalists' Field Club " makes my
mind stretch in fancy from these stone walls to breezy braes with
wimpling burns, or to rugged mountain-sides with their wild cas-
cades. In our cities we live like caged birds, hedged in with the
anxieties, worries, and cares of the struggle for existence. Can
any one wonder that sometimes the tired-out machinery of our
nature requires to be reinvigorated by breathing the pure air of
heaven ; or that the aspirations of the sons of freedom rise within
us, and, as Scotia's children, make us seek for health upon the
heaths and mountains of our native land. Alas ! neglect, languor,
and want of determination are rajjidly performing their work ; and
unless we are up and doing to claim and protect our rights, we
will lose our privileges. From time immemorial our heaths and
hills have been tlie happy hunting-grounds for health for all our
citizens ; but for years past, gradually one part and then another of
our moorlands have been closed to the public, and ere long we may
find that nothing but the dusty roads are left to us. It is time we
were moving in this matter ; if we delay much longer it will be
too late. Fortunately Professor Bryce, a countryman of our own,
has become alive to the dangers of losing the Scottish mountains
and heaths as a sanatorium for Britain, and for some years has
been endeavouring to get Parliament to pass his " Scottish
Mountains Access Bill." He has had to fight most of the battle

272 Transactiojis of the [Sess.

himself, and I for one feel tliat lie has been fighting for us. I say-
then, let us help him, and in every possible way give him our
support. I think I hear some of you say in amazement, *' What
can we do ? " Well, my view is, we can do a great deal. In the
first place, we can stir up public opinion as a Club ; we can try to
interest every Field Club and Natural History Society in Britain,
and do our best to get them to combine to support Professor Bryce.
But, what is more, we have over two hundred members who can
influence their friends in favour of this Bill, and the effect of such
efforts will be great in stirring up a healthy agitation to promote
the end in view. We wish to invade no man's privacy ; and to do
damage to property is the last thing we desire. In Scotland there
is no law of trespass, and I trust never will be. We must respect
the lawful rights of others as we value our own, but we must have
our heritage. During the past summer I had the privilege of
forming one of a party of members of the Botanical Society who
visited the mountains at the head of Glen Lyon, and I wish I could
only express to you the enjoyment we all had. Might it not be
possible to inaugurate such excursions in connection with our
Club ? It is a matter for the consideration of the Council, as it
would enable our members to get wider experience than can be
obtained by merely working in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh.
It would also help to bind us together in closer friendshij), and
tend to promote and encourage united investigation.

And now regarding next summer's excursions, may I suggest
that each of you should think over the subject during the coming
winter, and be ready to propose places for the Club to visit next
season. For several years a number of lists with the names of
places were sent in, but these have gradually been dwindling in
numbers, with the result that the work of drawing up the list of
excursions has of late mostly devolved upon the Council. It would
be a decided advantage if places could be visited to which as a
Club we have not yet been. We might perhaps attempt excur-
sions that would enable those interested in the various branches
of study we take up to thoroughly enjoy themselves in their own
particular investigations. Some might require to take long walks,
others again might find all they required within a short distance of
the starting-point ; but one feature of our excursions might be, to
have each day a fixed rendezvous at which we could all meet in
the evening. The longer walks would enable our members to be-
come acquainted with all the " rights of way " Avithin a consider-
able radius of the Modern Athens, and thus help to preserve them
as public paths. There is uiDon the table a little book with a red
cover that I trust may place on record for all time coming what
are at present undisputed rights of way over the Pentland Hills.
It has been written by our fellow-townsman Mr W. A. Smith, and

1885-86.] Edinburgh Natiwalists' Field Club. 273

the map supplied gratuitously by another of our citizens, Mr
Bartholomew.

In conclusion, let me urge upon you all to use your best efforts
to proclaim from one end of the city to the other, and if possible
far beyond its boundary, the advantages to be derived from the
membership of the Field Club. With more members we would
have greater resources, be able to make our meetings more attrac-
tive, and do better work. The measure of prosperity that has
attended the Club within the last few years may well encourage
us for the future ; and need I remind you that " nothing succeeds
like success."

II.—THE ORGANIC CAUSES OF THE COLORATION
OF WATER, Etc.

By Mr JOHN RATTRAY, M.A., B.Sc.

{Bead Nov. 20, 1885.)

The explanations that have been given of unusual colours of
water, snow, hail, &c., may be arranged in four periods, more or
less distinct from and independent of one another — viz. : (1) The
theocratic, or period of wonder; (2) the hippocratic, or period
of doubt ; (3) the naturalistic period ; (4) the cosmic period. To
the first of these periods must be assigned the opinions held by
the ancient Greek and Eoman classics, who, from the time of Homer,
referred such phenomena as are now familiarly known as blood-
rain to the direct intervention of the gods, in modifying the ordi-
nary course of the laws of nature. To the second Cicero probably
belongs, as by him supernatural interference was, for the first time,
doubted, and an attempt was made to obtain a physical explana-
tion. Peiresc founded the third period, and Cladni the fourth.

Prior to Cladni, various remarkable occurrences had taken
place ; but in not a few cases precision is not to be found in the
stories that have been recorded. Thus, rivers had suddenly become
red without previous red rain — e.g., in Picenum, 323 B.C. In the
summer of 586 a.d., a similar event occurred in the Gulf of Venice ;
while Pliny records that a lake in Babylon remained red for eleven
days. Dew, rain, snow, and hail had been observed to fall of a red
colour ; a blood-like moisture, according to Livy, had covered the
statues even of the gods and of implements of war. Red snow and
hail had fallen, and instances of the occurrence of places suddenly
covered with a blood-like mucilage were not unknown. But in all

2/4 Transactions of the [Sess.

these cases the fall from the atmosphere had taken place before the
observations were made ; and no evidence existed that the appear-
ances were atmospheric, and not terrestrial. On the other hand,
on several occasions the atmosphere had previously been observed
to be filled with red-dust particles before the red rain fell — for ex-
ample, at Bag-dad in 929, and at Kome in 1222.

But it v^as not till the beginning of the seventeenth century that
true interpretations began to be forthcoming. A shower of blood-
rain occurred at Aix in 1608, which greatly alarmed the people,
whose frenzy was still further increased by the clergy. Peiresc,
however, soon offered a simple explanation. He had observed that
Butterflies were then very abundant, and that after the escape of
the imago from the pupa state a droplet of red juice remained, and
produced a red speck. These specks were found to occur in places
accessible to Butterflies, but where no rain had fallen, and inquiry
revealed that occurrences reported earlier might be similarly inter-
preted. The explanation became generally accepted ; and for the
first time insects were looked upon as possessing a new and pecu-
liar property.

Swammerdam, while journeying in France about the middle of
the seventeenth century, also observed, and was alai'med at, certain
blood-coloured water which he met with. He examined it, how-
ever, and found the cause to be the presence of a small Water-flea
[Daphnia pulex). Schuyl ^ similarly explained a similar phenome-
non which had excited the inhabitants of Leyden.

The observations thus instituted during the seventeenth century
were continued with still greater zeal during the eighteenth. In
1700, Eomberg directed attention to the reddening produced by the
cases of Bees in the vicinity of bee -hives; and in 1711, Hilde-
brandt, from observations made in Sweden, corroborated the influ-
ence exerted by insects. Westphal, in 1716, observed red spots
on plant-leaves in the vicinity of Delitzsch and Wittenberg ; and
not being able to regard these as due to insect products, he laid
himself open to the charge of being occupied with alchemist ex-
perimental theories, by asserting that the appearance was the re-
sult of dew, coloured red by the presence of sulphurous matter.

In 1746, a phenomenon on a larger scale, and one demanding a
new explanation, was recorded by Gonsag in California. He believed
that springs occurred in the sea, as at flood-tide the water, for an
extent of half a mile, was of a bluish-red hue. A chemical action
was here believed to be taking place between the spring and sea
water. Linnaeus attributed blood-rain to the presence of a small
animalcule, Monoculus pulex, w^hich was similar to the Cyclops
qiiadricornis found in similar conditions in Sweden by Agardh.

So early as 1646, a chemical examination of red rain had been

1 ' Bibel der Natur,' p. 40.

1885-86.] Edinburgh Naturalists' Field Club. 275

made at Brussels ; but Dr Eau made another such research at Ulm
in 1755, and his results entirely disproved the sulphur theory, and
established the presence of organic bodies. It is also important to
note that instances have been recorded of red water resulting from
the fine dust emitted during volcanic activity ; and that, at sea, the
bleeding of large animals, such as Sharks and Sword-fish, may
cause red discoloration. De Saussiu'e,^ in 1760, found the cause
of the colour of red rivers to be sometimes pollen ; while in France,
in 1797, Girod Chantran found a pond filled with water of a car-
mine colour, which he attributed to the presence of a species of
Volvox (F. lacustris) — an infusor, which he has named, but not
described.

During the nineteenth century, the investigation of this curious
subject was still prosecuted with zeal. Persoon, in 1801, examined
certain red mucilaginous specks observed on damp ground, and
found the cause to be a fungus, which he described as ThelejjJiora
sanguinea, and which was later described by Fries as Phylacteria
Crustacea^ and still later, by Agardh, as an alga, Palmella cruenta.

Andreossy, in Lower Egypt, and Ehrenberg, in the Astrakhan
Steppe, found a red-coloured " Salz-lage," — the colouring matter
being in the salt, and fading on drying.

In 1815, the inhabitants of South Prussia were, like the ancient
classics, astonished by the presence of red, violet, and green patches
in the water of the lake of Lulotin ; and, in consequence of the
unusual occurrence, were not slow to predict misfortunes soon to
come. Klaproth - examined this water chemically, and found the
cause to be an albuminoid-like vegetable mucilage, peculiarly
tinged by an indigo dye, and attributable to the decomposition of
vegetables during harvest. The transition from green to violet
was caused by the presence of more or less oxygen.

Scoresby,^ in 1820, noted the occurrence of green and blue stripes
in the sea around Greenland, and covering about one-fourth of its
surface. These he attributed to the presence of small animals
( = small medusoid spherules, |^ to § inch long), of which he calculated
64 to be in a cubic inch.

About the same time. Captain Eoss was engaged in the study of
red snow, which he found very abundantly in the mountains of
Baffin's Bay. This colouring substance, which had been ascribed
to the ejectamenta of birds, was examined by Bauer, Wollaston,
Thenard, Brown, Hooker, Sprengel, Agardh, De Candolle, Cladni,
and others ; and by all, save Cladni, it was declared to be of a
vegetable nature. The systematic position — whether algoid or
fungoid — of this new organism was uncertain, and various

1 ' Voyage clans les Alpes.'

2 'Beitrage z. chem. Kenntiiiss d. Min.,' vol. vi. p. 96.
2 ' Account of the Arctic Regions,' vol. i.

276 Transactions of the [Sess.

synonyms were given for it, such as TJredo nivalis (Bauer), Pal-
mella nivalis (Hooker), Protococcus Tcermesinus (Agardh), Sphcerella
nivalis (Sommerfeld), Lepraria Jcermesina (Wrangel), &c. Fantastic
explanations of the origin of these bodies were soon forthcoming.
By some the sun was supposed to contribute a peculiar life-giving
principle to the snow ; while by others the red bodies were re-
garded as foreign, and as being, in the first instance, collected
on its surface by the wind, and then further aggregated by the
melting of the snow. That each of these bodies could develop
further on the surface of the snow was regarded as very pro-
bable. By others, again, the '' so schwer zu erweisende Generatio
primitiva " was maintained ; while by yet others their fungoid
rather than their algoid nature was regarded as the more probable.

The account thus given, from a naturalist's point of view, was
combated in 1819 by Cladni, who ascribed the redness of snow to
the presence of meteoric dust, and who deprecated the manner in
which this had been overlooked by Bauer and others. Cladni even
believed that in red snow from South Switzerland he detected pyr-
oxene, or augite-like substances.

The orange-coloured snow which Scoresby had seen in the neigh-
bourhood of Greenland was regarded by him as not unlikely of
specific difference from the red snow noticed by Captain Eoss. In
the green sea-water, red spots which seemed to correspond with ap-
pearances of a similar kind in various places inshore were seen.
These spots were believed to be caused by the presence of very
many small acephalee — which, however, seemed to be devoid of
swimmina: organs — and to these the redness of the snow was
ascribed ;^ but no further investigations were made in connection
with them.

In the province of Padua, in Italy, the presence of blood-coloured
spots excited much curiosity about the year 1824. Sette investi-
gated the cause of these, and found it to be the presence of a red
filamentous fungus, which he named Zoogalactina inehrosUj and re-
ferred to as a hitherto unknown genus. Only a year later De Can-
dolle made further observations on the red colour of a lake in South
Switzerland, the unusual hue being well known to the fishermen in
that neighbourhood. Engelhardt, Haller, and others had also ob-
served the appearance, and arrangements had been made to pro-
secute a chemical analysis. De Candolle found the colour to be
due to the presence of a yet undescribed species of Oscillatoria,
which was described as 0. ruhescens ; while the chemical analysis
revealed the presence, among other things, of red and green resin-
ous materials, mucilage, an alkali, and iron-oxide. With respect
to the Oscillatorise, an interesting observation was made, namely,
that during sunshine they rose to the surface of the water, while

1 'Edin. New Phil. Jour.,' 1828; 'Ann. d. Sci. Nat.,' 1829, p. 218.

1885-86.] Edinburgh Nationalists' Field Club. 277

at sunset they sank, and it was suggested that the evolution of
gas might have something to do with the movement.'^

As a result of a chemical examination of meteoric masses carried
out by Zimmermann in 1821, after an appearance of blood-rain, the
coloration was ascribed to a peculiar substance of doubtful nature,
which was named Pyrrhin. The importance of the red colour
produced by adding silver nitrate to amber containing organic
matter was also pointed out by physicists ; while Hermbstiidt and
Berzelius were inclined to recognise the existence of a transitory
substance in sea-water, produced by the decomposition of organic
bodies. Witting,^ on the other hand, regarded the redness to be
the result of the union of carbo-hydrates with water.

To Gr. von Esenbeck the somewhat poetical idea held by some,
that in the atmosphere a workshop of living forms was to be met
with, appeared trivial ; while the operation of certain physical factors
referred to by others was to be kept under due bounds. All the
blood-like appearances were to be looked upon as due to siliceous
earth, or even oxide, or to grains of pyroxene and augite.

F. von Esenbeck, brother of the observer last noted, again re-
cognised the part played by infusoria in producing the red colour of
water, and the organism believed to be the direct cause was named
Enchelys sanguinea. Its colour was due to the presence of an in-
ternal, brownish-red, granular mass ; the ends of its body were
transparent, the anterior being truncated and the posterior pointed.

Ehrenberg now recorded the effect produced by Oscillatoria
major, or a nearly allied species, in colouring water ; while Bory
sometimes observed, by aid of the microscope, a circulation of the
colouring matter in the filaments. At Cairo, in Egypt, Elu'enberg,
in 1823, found red spots which he ascribed to a fungus, Sarcoderma
sangaineum ; while the small fungus, Geocharis nilotica, was also found
in a highly coloured condition on the banks of the Nile. At Siut,
in Upper Egypt, in 1821, stagnant water was found to be coloured
red by Uphctiroplea annulina, Ag. While in 1823, the Red Sea,
near Tor, was tinged by, for the most part, dark-red organisms,
which proved to be OscillatoricB enclosed in mucilage, and were
named Trichodesmiumenjthneum. Again, in Siberia, in 1829, Ehren-
berg found a marsh coloured red by the presence of an infusor,
Cercaria viridis (Miiller).

In the sea, especially in tropical or subtropical localities, the
existence in clear blue water of streaks of green or brownish-red
colour occurring in the same locality are not unfrequent. The
existence of floating masses of living Diatoms especially bring
about this appearance — e.g., Rhizosolenice, Chfetocerotidfe, and

1 'Mem. de la Soc. de Phys. et d'Hist. nat. Geneve,' vol. iii. p. 30;
Ehrenberg in ' Poggend. Ann d. Phys. et Chemie,' p. 130.

2 ' Archiv. d. Apothek. Vereins in nordl. Deutschl.,' Bd. ix., p. 215.

2/8 Transactions of the [Sess.

Coscinodisci ; while it cannot be doubted that the presence of often
briUiantly coloured crustacean larv^ aid in producing the same
result. The fact is no less significant, that although these streaks
are often apparently on the very surface in daylight, careful appli-
ances will fail to collect them. If, however, the collecting-net be
sunk some fathoms, an abundance of material of the desired kind
will be procured. It is also important that, with due precautions,
these iloating masses may — for example, in the vicinity of an iso-
lated rock — be made the means of arriving at an approximate idea
of the velocity of ocean currents, about which so little, it must be
acknowledged, is yet known with precision.

III.— THE RED DEER {CERVUS ELAPHUS).
By Mr SYMINGTON GRIEVE, President.
{Read Nov. 20, 1885.)

It has been most difficult for me to decide upon a subject for my
address to you to-night. I am well aware that you naturally ex-
pect me to discourse to you upon some theme that will prove of
general interest, and it has been in that very fact that my principal
difficulty has arisen. Most of the localities at which I have carried
on investigations are so distant from Edinburgh, that I suppose
very few of you have visited them ; and without having been there,
it can hardly be expected that you should have that special inter-
est which makes one an enthusiastic listener even when a subject
is somewhat dry. It is therefore not without considerable doubt
in my own mind that I have resolved to read to you to-night some
notes on Red Deer, suggested by incidents and observations made
during a trip to the Deer-forest of the island of Rum, one of the
Hebrides, in July 1884. I need not tell you of our voyage to
Rum in the good steamer Hebridean, as many a voyage of greater
length, and accompanied by more stirring adventures, has been
told before. Suffice it to say we arrived at Loch Screresort early
one morning, and were soon landed at a substantial stone quay,
from which we found our way to Kinloch, the proprietor's house,
situated about half a mile distant, at the head of the loch. When
we got time to look about us, we found that Kinloch was situated
at the entrance to a valley that stretched away westwards for
some miles. To the south the cluster of grand mountains that
make Rum such a conspicuous object in the landscape from most
points of the western mainland and islands, reared up their heads to

1885-86.] Edinburgh Naturalists Field Club. 279

heaven. It is this south-eastern corner of Rum that is tlie Deer-
forest, though the Deer find their way more or less all over the
island. The greater part of Rum is let as a sheep-farm, and dur-
ing the summer the proprietor puts a number of sheep also into
the forest, as there is sufficient grazing for both them and the
Deer ; but in the winter time the sheep are withdrawn. I was
several days on the island, climbing the mountains and wandering
over the Deer-forest, without having seen even one of these ani-
mals ; and I naturally began to think that there must be some
mistake about the Deei*. I mentioned my doubts to some of the
inhabitants, who assured me that I would yet see plenty of the
big game, and added that I must have been near many of them
without having discovered their presence. On the sixth day after
landing I arranged with a shepherd to ascend Aisge-meal (pro-
nounced Askival\ the highest and most inaccessible peak of Rum.
We attempted the ascent from the eastern side, a point from
which the shepherd had never reached the summit before ; but by
assisting each other from ledge to ledge, we at last found ourselves
at the top. We were taking a rest on the sharp ridge after our
climb, and were scanning the depths of the vast corrie that lies
immediately to the west of Halival and Aisge-meal. I expressed
to my companion the intense joy I felt at having an opportunity
of looking on such rugged grandeur, and casually remarked on the
absence of Deer in such a likely spot for them to frequent. He at
once said, " I am sure there are plenty of Deer in the corrie, but
they will be lying down." He then began to halloo at the top
of his voice, and in a minute or so said to me, " See, there they
go ! " But though I looked in the direction he pointed out, I at
first could see nothing but the rugged mountain-side, with patches
of verdure and masses of broken rock. At last I saw one Stag
spring up from the ground, and, watching him closely, observed
that he joined some others, and then I noticed in front of them
quite a procession of Hinds. This was my first view of the wild
Deer of Rum. It was a distant one, however, as we were at an
altitude of 2659 feet, while the Deer were at least half a mile off,
and were on ground not more than 500 feet above sea-level. The
next day I had a much closer acquaintance with one of the mon-
archs of the forest, and I cannot say I felt quite at ease when we
met. I had been fishing one of the numerous tarns, and, with the
intention of testing the fishing capabilities of another, had just
started to cross an intervening ridge of rising ground. I had only
got a short distance on my way when suddenly there sprang up,
from a slight hollow in front of some rocks, a splendid Stag with
antlered head. The wind was rather high, and was blowing in my
face, so the Stag had neither heard nor scented my approach until
I was almost upon it. When it first rose it turned its head to-

28o Trmisactions of the [Sess.

wards me ; then instinctively it put itself in an attitude of defence,
and stood at bay. I made a slight advance, waving my fishing-
rod in front of me, but instead of running away the brute seemed
rather inclined to advance, and I expected the next moment to
have a fight for life. If it did charge, I felt the mounted fishing-
rod would be next to useless as a weapon of defence ; and as the
antlers of the deer were free of velvet, I knew the consequences
might be rather serious for me. To run was out of the question,
so I stood my ground and kept waving the fishing-rod in front of
me. Gradually this had the desired effect, for the Stag moved
slowly oif to the left a few yards, stopped, had another look at me,
then leisurely scrambled up the rugged ascent a short distance,
and turned round once more. Something about my appearance
seemed to make him decide not to prolong our meeting, and to my
intense relief he made a sudden dash over the crest of the hill, and
was out of sight. I followed, and presently caught sight of him
rushing down the glen with several Hinds in his company. After
this I had no unpleasant rencontres with the Deer, but saw num-
bers of them every day during my excursions.

Pennant, who visited Rum in July 1769, mentions that the Stags
are sometimes attacked by Eagles and killed. He says : " These
animals [the Red Deer] once abounded here, but they are now re-
duced to eighty by the Eagles, who not only kill the Fawns but
the old Deer, seizing them between the horns and terrifying them
till they fall down some precipice and become their prey." ^ One
would almost doubt the accuracy of such a statement were it un-
supported, even though Pennant is such a trustworthy authority ;
but the following notice of an attack upon a Stag by an Eagle
which appeared in the 'Scotsman' newspaper for 11th December
1884, seems to my mind to give the best possible reason for credit-
ing Pennant's statement. A Strathglass correspondent says : —

" A few days ago a singular struggle was witnessed on the lower portion of
Corrie-Mor, at a short distance above Glassburn House, between a large and
powerful Eagle and a finely antlered Stag. The king of birds was watched
for some time as he hovered about on high above a herd of Deer, which ap-
peared to possess particular attractions for him. The noble bird was slowly
descending as he majestically sailed round in his aerial circles, and by degrees
getting nearer to his coveted quarry. At last reaching the striking distance,
he suddenly came to a halt in mid air, and, poising himself on outspread
wings, he seemed for a few seconds perfectly motionless. Then, like a
bullet from a rifle, he swooped down, and in an instant his powerful talons
were firmlj' fixed in the back of a fine large Stag. The monarch of the glen
plunged about in the wildest possible manner, evidently in great terror and
pain, the Eagle holding on grimly, belabouring the Stag's sides all the while
with heavy blows from its wings, and, when opportunity offered, making

^ ' A General Collection of Voyages and Travels.' By Thomas Pennant,
Esq. London: 1772. Vol. iii., p. 313.

1885-86.] EdinburgJi Naturalists' Field Club. 281

clespei-ate darts with its beak at the eyes of the frightened Deer. By this
time the poor Stag's brown sides were red and gory, and, notwithstanding its
frantic efforts, he couUl not disengage himself from his strong and cruel foe.
At last, seeming to discover that his antlers could reach his savage enemy,
he commenced raking fore and aft with them in the most vigorous manner,
until he managed to send the Eagle sprawling in the heather. The Stag had
gallantly freed himself ; but he had not bounded far when his fierce assailant,
recovering from his discomfiture, was again on the wing, and in full chase,
and in a few seconds down he came again, and firmly fixed his powerful claws
ill the Deer's haunches, so far back as to be out of reach of the antlers. Again
the struggle was renewed, the Eagle meanwhile tearing at the victim's flesh
with his strong bill, and burying his talons still deeper into his haunches.
The poor Stag was now very nuich exhausted, and was evidently getting the
worst of it, as he could not touch the Eagle with his antlers. At this junc-
ture, as if ill despair, the Stag commenced to tumble about, throwing him-
self on the ground, and rolling over down-hill ; but still the Eagle seemed
incapable of letting go its tenacious griji. The Stag then put his head down
between his fore-legs, throwing himself clean over — heels over head — several
times. It was indeed a wild, a wonderful, and a most unusual sight. The
Stag's efforts were at last successful, and getting clear of his murderous
enemy, he galloped off".

" The Eagle was, however, speedily up again and in full chase ; but his in-
tended victim made liis escape sui'e, by rushing full speed down the hill into
the Glassburn woods. The Eagle, rather ruffled in his plumage, and no doubt
much ruffled in his temper, soared aloft to look for his dinner elsewhere. It
was a hard and well-fought battle, woi-thy of being delineated by the pencil
of a Landseer. The Eagle was a splendid specimen of its kind, and of un-
usual size. He appeared to be much larger than the Glen Strathfarrar Eagles,
and is supposed to be a poacher from the North or West. His plumage was
dai'k brown, with some white or grey on the surface of the tail feathers ; the
crown of the head was tawny, the legs and beak yellow, and the claws black. "

It is no unusual thing for the Red Deer to endeavour to swim
across the ocean channel that separates Rum from Skye, a distance
of at least seven miles. It is possible they may sometimes succeed,
but frequently they are drowned in the attempt, though they are
splendid swimmers, especially when in good condition — their fat
contributing to their buoyancy. During the winter of 1883, the
dead bodies of six Deer were washed up on the south shore of Skye,
which, we were told by the inhabitants, had been drowned through
a storm coming on while they were crossing from Rum. That this
is true seems probable, as Deer are said to have been seen crossing
by the occupants of boats and passing ships, swimming hard far
out in the channel. The nearest point on Rum to Skye is dis-
tant about seven miles. The distance between the nearest point
on Rum and Eilean Soa is fully six miles ; and the distance across
the channel between Eilean Soa and Skye at the narrowest part is
about one mile. In the 'Zoologist' for 18G0, at page 6913, there
is the following interesting account, which in all likelihood refers
to a Stag from the island of Rum. The communication originally
was sent to the * Field ' by Mr William Robertson, Kinloch-Moidart,
Inverness-shire. He says : —

282 Transactions of the [Sess.

" On the 27th October last (1859), a Red-Deer Stag of four points landed
on the north side of the island of Muck, one of the Inner Hebrides, belonging
to H. Swinbourne, Esq., R.N. The shepherd's family were startled by his
bellowing. Unfortunately his dogs broke out, and chased the poor animal
all night. In the morning he was found dead, though warm, his gallant
heart being, as it was expressed, broken. He must indeed have been a noble
animal to face the swim he so successfully though unfortunately accom-
plished. The nearest places on which Red Deer are kept are the island of
Rum, belonging to the Marquis of Salisbury,^ about ten miles distant,
and Arisaig, belonging to Mr Astley, about twelve miles distant. There are
also Red Deer in the island of Mull, more than twelve miles distant, but he
could not have come from thence, as there was a strong wind right against
him. From either Rum or Arisaig he might have shortened the distance by
landing on the island of Eigg ; but Muck is two miles from Eigg, and Eigg is
six miles from Rum and eight from Arisaig, and from either he must at all
times have had a strong side-tide against him. The distances are local esti-
mates, the existing charts being considered incorrect, and since hearing of
the above I have had no opportunity of consulting them. 2 . . . The late
Colin Campbell of Jura mentioned to me that he believed there was a well-
authenticated tradition of a Stag having swum from Jura to the mainland, a
distance of seven miles. "

So far the correspondent of the ' Field' ; but I have been informed
by a Mr M'Kechnie, who was brought up at Ardlussa, at the north
end of Jura, that he recollects well when a lad (probably about the
years 1852 to 1855), that one autumn a tame Hind swam from
Ardlussa to a point on the mainland opposite, where it was ob-
served by a fisherman to land in the early morning. This Hind
was easily recaptured, being tame, and was returned to Ardlussa
in a boat. The distance across the channel here appears, from the
maps at my disposal, to be a little over five miles. From these
accounts you can form some idea of the swimming feats of the Eed
Deer; and it indicates to us pretty clearly the way in which in past
times these animals managed to reach some of the islands, such
as Colonsay and Oronsay, from which they have long disap-
peared. That they at one time were plentiful on the two islands
just mentioned is easily understood, when we remember the fre-
quency with which fragments of their bones and antlers are found
in the kitchen-middens of the ancient inhabitants. It is difficult
to say what may be the causes that prompt the Deer thus to seek
a new home. Perhaps it is sometimes the desire to find richer
pastures ; but it seems probable that more frequently the young
Stags, after those fierce fights for supremacy, when defeated, think

1 The late proprietor, Farquhar Campbell, Esq. of Oronsay, offered the
island at public sale in June 1886, without getting a purchaser. He died
■during the following August.

2 The nearest point of Rum to Muck is about six miles ; from Arisaig to
Muck, about thirteen miles ; from Arisaig to Eigg, about seven miles ; the
nearest point on Eigg to Rum, about four miles ; and the nearest point on
Eigg to Muck, about three miles.

1885-86.] Edinburgh Naturalists' Field Club. 283

it i^rudent to retire from the neighbourhood of their defeat and
from the presence of their conqueror.

While speaking about the Eed Deer, let me say a few words
about its antlers. In the first place, one often hears people talking
of Deer's horns. This mode of expression has become so common,
that it is now indulged in as " use and wont," but properly we
should say a Deer's antlers, and not Jiorns. There is a striking
difference in the structure of a Deer's antler and a Bull's horn, and
it seems as well to express that difference when we have words
for the purpose.

During the first two years of a Stag's life, before the antlers
begin to branch, some writers on Natural History call the bony pro-
tuberances from its head Aonis. As you are doubtless well aware,
the hinds of the Red Deer do not possess antlers. The antlers
when formed are of a hard bony substance, and differ in this
respect from the horns of the Antelope, which are hollow and per-
sistent, while the antlers of the Eed Deer are caducous — in other
words, fall off early each year. The power of renewing these
enormous bony appendages appears to increase with the age of the
animal, so the largest antlers are generally found on the oldest
Stags. The following is a rough outline of a Stag's life-history
as regards its antlers : The first year after birth it has, properly
speaking, none — only two bony excrescences, short, rough, and
covered with a thin haiiy skin. The second year two straight
prong-like antlers appear. The third year the place of these is
taken by antlers with two branches ; the fourth year there are
three; the fifth, four; and the sixth, five. From this time onwards
the antlers do not always become more branched, but sometimes
they increase to double that number. When a Stag's antlers pos-
sess twelve tines, it becomes a " royal," but Deer with such fine
heads are rather scarce in Britain. During last September, out of
eighty-one stags killed in the Kingussie district, only four were
" royals." On the 24th of the same month I noticed from the
newspapers that Lord Lovat was said to have shot a Stag near
Beaufort Castle which had antlers upwards of three feet in length,
with fourteen points, the animal weighing twenty-four stones. This,
however, appears to be quite unusual.^ The Stag's age is generally
estimated rather from the thickness of the base of the antler from
which the branches spring, than from the number of the tines or

1 Since the above was written, I have been favoured with the following
communication from Henry Evans, Esq., Jura forest, dated 24th October
1885. He says: "The heaviest Red-Deer Stag ever killed and recorded
here was 26 stone 9 lb., but it was a wood Deer, and no doubt got a
bite from the crops. The average weight killed here now, clean {i.e., with-
out heart, liver, lights, and throttle), is about 14 stone 2 lb. to 14 stone
4 lb. The average of all Scotch forests is less than that. Most island
Deer are small — e.g., Skye, Lewis, Harris. The Reay averaged over 16

284 Transactions of the [Sess.

points. It frequently happens that there are more tines on the
antler on one side of the head than the other, and the angles of
curvature, length, and direction on different heads vary consider-
ably. As the antlers become larger, the superficial furrows become
more marked, and the burr is more projecting. The average full-
grown Stag has antlers that probably weigh about 24 lb., and
this enormous mass of bone drops off annually in the spring, and is
replaced by at least an equally large mass of bone in the succeed-
ing three months. The remarkable provision of nature by which
this rapid growth takes place, and is transformed into bone, I will
now refer to. Towards the end of spring the branches of the ex-
ternal carotid arteries, which perform the ofSce of secreting this
new bone, become enlarged, and there is an increased flow of blood
to the Stag's head, as a large supply of blood is necessary for this
rapid formation. The new antlers immediately begin to grow, but
are covered with a hairy skin called the velvet, which is rich in
blood-vessels. The antlers are at this time quite soft and vascular,
and if pricked, blood flows fi'om the wound. They are warm to
the touch, and extremely sensitive. When the process of growth
has been completed, the supply of blood is gradually curtailed by
the biuT which forms the base of the antlers. The antlers being
fully formed, the velvet peels off. The antlers are now no longer
sensitive, but are hard bony formations, ornamental to the animal,
and weapons with which it can wage war upon its brethren for
possession of the Hinds. The average period occupied by this
growth is about ten weeks. During this time the Stags retire from
the herd into solitude, as if they were aware of then' defenceless
state. When the rutting season comes on, about August, the
Stags of the Eed Deer are formidable animals ; and though in their
wild state they are said not to attack man, still I would not like
to trust them much, if suddenly surprised, especially in situations
where they had no means of easily retreating. It is not within my
knowledge whether there are any well-authenticated instances of
such attacks in this country, but in Asia the Eed Deer will fight
with other wild animals. I have heard of an instance in which a
Stag is said to have beaten ofli' a Tiger with its antlers. Though it
may be doubtful whether wild Eed Deer will attack human beings,
it is well known that when confined in a park, or in a supposed
tame state, they frequently become exceedingly dangerous, and
will attack even those who attend to them.

stone last year, which is amazing. Very few people tell the truth about
weights. We have " crounie " heads here, horns leaning backwards, and I
believe these are seldom if ever found elsewhere. I believe wild Scotch
Stags are at their best when twelve years old. I have paid a good deal of
attention to them. I know little as to how far Stags swim. They swim
well ; they have crossed from Jura to Islay, but it is but half a mile at the
ferry."

1885-86.] Edinburgh Naturalists' Field Club. 285

In the spring of each year the antlers, which have become gradu-
ally loosened, drop off. We might expect to find great numbers
of those head-ornaments scattered throughout Deer-forests, but in
this country the Deer appear invariably to eat them. This curious
habit has puzzled numbers of naturalists, but I think there can
be no doubt ujDon the question, as Hinds have been seen gnawing
at the cast-off antlers ; and a case is mentioned where one was
found dead by a late Duke of Athole, which had been choked while
trying to swallow part of an antler. One thing is certain, and that
is, that any one may wander for days over Deer-forests, both on the
mainland of Scotland and Western Isles, without finding even a
scrap of an antler. I once was fortunate enough to make such a
find in the Rannoch district, and the fragment is before you on the
table. You will observe that it exhibits signs of having been
gnawed at one end, and perhaps the Deer had been frightened
in some way while busy eating, and did not return to complete its
meal. If you ask any gillie, he will tell you that the Deer eat
their antlers ; and though he may never have seen the animals
engaged in the operation himself, still you will find he has not the
least doubt that they thus dispose of these cast-off appendages.
The statements we have seen regarding Eed Deer having been
noticed eating their antlers only mention Hinds having been ob-
served thus engaged. This seems rather curious, and it would be
interesting to have fuller information upon this point, as it is diffi-
cult to suggest any advantage likely to accrue to the Hinds from
eating these antlers ; while if the Stags themselves were known
to eat these bones, it might be offered as a possible suggestion that
they were storing up material to aid the formation of the antlers of
the following year. However, as far as the evidence at our dis-
posal goes, it prevents the adoption of this theory. That large
quantities of Deer antlers are obtainable from some source is evi-
dent, when one thinks of the vast quantities of this material used
for the handles of cutlery. Probably the greater portion is obtained,
not from the Eed Deer, but from some allied species, such as
the Reindeer, Both male and female of this variety of Deer have
antlers ; and as immense herds are domesticated, it is compara-
tively easy for the owners of these herds to collect the antlers
before the animals have time to destroy them. With the wild
Deer it is, however, entirely different. We find from a paper in
' Science Gleanings,' written by Mr John Gibson of the Museum of
Science and Art, that " about four hundred tons weight of antlers
are said to be annually imported into Britain from India and Ceylon,
and one hundred tons from the continent of Europe, while Green-
land supplies a very large quantity."

It has been observed in North America that Deer seem to visit
certain localities to shed their antlers, and in these circumstances

VOL. I, u

286 Transactions of the [Sess.

do not appear to eat them. In such localities as those referred to,
vast accumulations of shed antlers have been discovered. How-
ever, such a habit appears to be exceptional, as hunters in those
parts of the North American continent where the cervine family
are most plentiful have remarked the scarcity of shed antlers, in
the same way that has been noticed in our own country. The
peculiar habit of the Eed Deer of visiting a particular place to shed
its antlers — generally a place where there is good pasture — has
also been observed in Scotland, and may be much more common
than is generally supposed. During a recent visit to the Apple-
cross Deer-forest, I was informed by Mr Macrae, one of the game-
keepers, that close to the house of another gamekeeper in the
forest, near Kishorn, is a field to which the Deer resort to shed
their antlers, and this keeper gathers them regularly each morning
in the spring months. I could not ascertain that there appeared to
have been any attempt by the Deer to eat these cast-off antlers.
From all I could learn, they were found just as they were when
they became detached. They are purchased by the agent of a
Glasgow merchant at the price of about sixpence per pound
weight.

IV.— ON THE STRUCTURE AND POLLINATION OF THE
FLOWERS OF SARRACENIA.

By J. M. MACFAELANE, D.Sc, F.R.S.E.

{Read Dec. IS, 1885.)

The structure of the flowers of Sarracenia in relation to their
pollination has not hitherto been explained, though the peculiari-
ties of the pistil have frequently been noticed.

The flowers are produced singly at the extremity of long ped-
uncles, and, owing to bending of the upper part of the peduncle,
they droop in a graceful manner. Each flower consists externally
of three small bracteoles and five large spreading sepals, these
being all abundantly studded with honey-secreting glands, re-
sembling those found on the outside of the tubular leaf and its
inner lid-surface. Though I have only occasionally observed
honey secreted by these, it cannot be doubted but that they attract
insects to the inner flower-parts. The petals in the different
species agree in shape and general arrangement, but differ con-
siderably in size and colour. In S. variolaris they are yellowish-
green, and relatively small ; in S. flava they are pale yellow,

1885-86.] Edinburgh Naturalists' Field Club. 287

and of large size ; while in S. Drummondii, S. rubra, S. 7Ji<r/9?<re«,
and S. psittacina, they are of a greenish crimson or crimson colour.

Each petal, springing from the receptacle, grows outward and
downward (in drooping position), till it abuts against the upturned
edge of the umbrelloid style, over which it spreads, and then hangs
down as a broad free flap. In adjacent petals, between the point
of origin and abutment against the style, a space is left through
which insects can crawl into the interior ; and in doing this, they,
in almost all cases, must rub against one of the minute stigmatic
knobs. The stamens develop an abundance of pollen, which
escapes by apical, and eventually by longitudinal, dehiscence of
the anthers, on the opening of the flower, or, at most, a day after.

The outer wall of the ovary is covered by large, compound,
wart-like honey-glands, differing completely in structure and
appearance from the other glands of Sarracenia, and from these
an enormous quantity of nectar distils. From the position of
the ovary, this trickles down among the filaments, and, washing
down the pollen, falls in drops on the inner umbrelloid cavity of
the style-head.

Insects, tempted doubtless to the flowers by the external
bracteolar and sepaline nectar, and, to a greater or less degree, by
the colour of the petals, push through the gap between each pair
of the latter, and enter the umbrelloid cavity. In sipping the
abundant nectar, they simultaneously get smeared with pollen. I
have been unable to ascertain exactly the period of ripening of the
stigmatic knobs ; but insects in leaving the flowers can do so
readily by pushing up the flap of the petals, or by passing out the
way they entered without touching the stigma, since in the latter
case they most easily escape by emerging on one side of the
stigmatic part of the style process. Judging from analogy with
other bright-coloured flow^ers, one would expect a protandrous con-
dition in ripening of the stamens and pistil, and I incline to think,
from all I have observed, that a considerable period may intervene
between shedding of the pollen and ripening of the stigmas. This
may, in fact, explain why gardeners consider it difficult to obtain
seed-capsules either from self- or cross-fertilised flowers. An in-
teresting relation might doubtless be traced between the varying
colour of the flowers of the different species and the particular
insect which visits each, if these were watched in their native
haunts — the swamps of central and eastern N. America.

It may only be noted further that, in several of the species,
hairs are present on the outside and inside of the umbrelloid style,
which will guide insects into the interior as powerfully as the
similarly arranged hairs on the interior of the leaf-tube.

288 Transactions of the [Sess.

v.— THE RARER BIRDS OF STOBO.

By Mk JOHN THOMSON, Stobo.

{Communicated hy The Secbetaky, Dec. 18, 1885.)

In passing through the country, an observer of birds, as he
reaches a district well watered by streams, and largely inter-
spersed with trees, sheltered by surrounding hills which form a
pleasing contrast to the portions of land under cultivation, — as
he descries a " pleasant valley " like this, discovers, in addition
to the natural beauty of the landscape, a favourite haunt of his
feathered friends. If, on closer inspection, the locality boasts of
a great diversity of trees, in various stages of growth, from the
tender sapling to those of maturer age, the situation is on that
account all the more attractive as a bird resort. Such charac-
teristics as the foregoing are at the present time exhibited by
the parish of Stobo, and they do not fail to attract a correspond-
ingly large number and variety of the feathered fauna. The
parish lies 3| miles west from the town of Peebles, in the
county of same name, and includes an area of 10,373 acres.
The banks of the river Tweed which runs through the valley,
and is fed in its course by many tributary burns, attain to an
elevation of nearly 600 feet above sea-level ; whilst the neigh-
bouring hills, which in a measure surround the finer and conse-
quently more fertile portions of land pertaining to it, attain to
heights varying from 1500 to 2347 feet. The name of the
parish was written in remote times " Stobhow," '' Stubbehok,"
&c,, which signifies " the hollow of stumps," and thus indicates
that in those days, or at an earlier period, the district was
covered with wood. When the name was originally created,
however, it was perhaps intended to have a wider significance, and
to be descriptive of the main natural features of the neighbour-
hood, in which case the interpretation would be '' a hollow covered
with wood." With this slight introduction I will now proceed to
the matter in point.

During a period of sixteen years, in which I have given a good
deal of attention to the ornithology of Stobo, I have noted upwards
of ninety different species of birds within its bounds. I am well
aware, however, that this number is capable of being considerably
supplemented, and that various species, particularly migrants,
though hitherto undetected, may yet be discovered, as visitants to
this part in small numbers year by year. Indeed, judging from
past experience in adding new names to the list, and considering
how numerous the possibilities are of the presence of many being

1885-86.] Edinburgh Naturalists' Field Club. 289

overlooked — especially iu the season of the dense summer foliage
— I feel that a more thorough investigation than that vv^hich has
been made would be requisite, in order to obtain an approximately
complete list of the birds of the district. That it has often been
the temporary abode of many a vara avis in Scotland is very prob-
able, as, from the numerous sheltered nooks and hollows which it
contains, and the inducements which are offered by the protection
and food-products of an abundance of trees dispersed over its sur-
face, it presents a very tempting halting-place, or even temporary
residence, for a wayfaring bird. Of those to be noticed, the rarer,
and therefore the more interesting, only have been selected about
which to offer the few following remarks, which latter are mainly
the result of observations made during the sojourn of the several
species in the district.

The Grey Shrike {Lanius excubitor) may be first mentioned.
Possessed of qualities which entitle it to rank among predatory
birds (which by common consent take precedence in classification),
its occurrence is deserving of something better than the slight
notice afforded by the limits of a short paper like this. It has only
come under my own observation once, though of late years it seems
to have visited the country not unfrequently. My attention was
drawn to the individual example indicated, by the noisy alarm
wliich its presence created among a large number of small birds,
chiefly Chaffinches, who seemed to dread it as much as they would
a Sparrow-hawk (Accipiter nisiis). It was perched on the top of a
tall tree, from which, darting forth, it came into close proximity
with a passing Chaffinch, and at once gave chase, pursuing it
eagerly for a considerable distance — happily, however, without suc-
cess. Eesuming the line of flight from which it had deviated, it
came sufficiently near to admit of no dubiety as to its identification.
Its flight is rapid ; quick beats of the wings are repeated continu-
ously until a considerable space is covered, when a short intermis-
sion is made, which, combined with the succeeding stroke, produces
a slightly zigzag movement. Proceeding onwards, the Shrike
made a long downward swoop in the direction of a group of large
trees, and was lost to view. This occurred in February 1883.
Three specimens were shot at Biggar, about eight miles distant, in
October and November 1882. Two of these which I dissected had
the fur and bones of mice in their stomachs, and the third one had
just been making a meal of one of these quadrupeds, when it was
shot. The mouse was twisted round a spiked twig of a hawthorn
tree, and fixed so securely as to preclude entirely its removal, save
by the process of pulling it in pieces.

The Pied Flycatcher [Muscicapa cdricapiUa) next claims our
attention. Like many others of our rarer visitants, it would seem
recently to have appeared in greater numbers in Scotland, as is

290 Transactions of the [Sess.

proved by the circumstance of so many having been noted during
the past summer. Some allowance must no doubt be made for the
fact that there are now many more accurate observers of bird-life
than formerly, therefore much valuable information is brought to
light that previously was lost from want of the requisite attention
being paid to such subjects ; but still this does not militate against
the probability that by breeding in the country (as the birds have
been lately known to do, and returning with their broods to their
old haunts), they may be gradually increasing in numbers. It
therefore behoves all who may chance to come in contact with the
species to give it whatever protection they can, and so tend to
enhance the prospect of its yet becoming one of our familiar sum-
mer birds of passage. On the 15th of May last I saw two of these
birds in the parish, mated and evidently looking out for a nesting-
place. Operations were not, however, begun at tbis spot, and, the
birds disappearing on the following day, I failed to find any trace
of them until the 9th of June, when, a short distance off, I dis-
covered, in the hole of an Alder tree, a nest with eggs, on which
the hen-bird was sitting. Her male associate, nevertheless, did
not look such a fine specimen as the one first noticed. But next
day (10th) I observed a very superior plumaged cock, and so con-
cluded that two pairs were in the neighbourhood. In the hope
that another nest might not be far off, the bird's movements were
closely watched until a little patience produced the desired result.
This second nest was in the hole of a Eowan tree, and only about
100 yards distant from the other. It also contained eggs. The
one first found was deserted by the birds before the eggs were
hatched, owing probably to an act of molestation ; but the other
pair hatched out a young brood which were fledged on 8th July,
having remained in the nest about seventeen days. The habits of
this bird bear a considerable similarity to those of its congener,
the Spotted Flycatcher (Muscicapa grisola), insects seeming to con-
stitute its principal food-supply. The mode of feeding is to re-
main quietly perched until it espies an insect, when off it darts to
secure the same. While, however, the Spotted species usually sits
on the outermost branches of trees, or on some prominent object,
directing its gaze to insects that are passing on the wing, the Pied
Flycatcher turns its attention mainly to what is stirring amidst
the trees, caj)turing the most of its prey off the leaves and
branches. Occasional outward sallies are also made after passing
insects, when a snap of the bill may be heard at the moment of
seizure, and descents are made also to those on, and in proximity
to, the ground. During the period of incubation the male feeds
his partner very frequently, both when in the nest and out of it,
but does not, so far as I could ascertain, assist in hatching. When
a person approaches close to their nest they show little concern,

1885-86.] Edinburgh Naturalists^ Field Club. 291

so long as it does not contain young birds ; but for these latter they
evince much solicitude, alighting quite near to an intruder and
manifesting distress by their gestures and the rapid utterance of
a note which is somewhat like " veet." Another note — '' chuck-
tuck " — is used by turns on these occasions. When sitting quiet,
the male may be heard to utter a low, plaintive note, resembling
the ordinary call of the Bullfinch [Pyrrhula europcea) as it is heard
at a distance ; and its song, which is audible some way off, is not
unlike that of the Cole Tit [Parus ater). They are courageous
birds, and will sometimes drive another species away from their
nest. A male Pied Flycatcher was shot in the grounds of Stobo
Castle on May 22, 1879, and is now in my possession.

The Raven [Corviis corax) has now become a stranger in the
district, insomuch that his once familiar name of " Corbie " is rarely
used except by the older residents. For many years back his ap-
pearances have unfortunately been few, and his stay of short dura-
tion. Two or three were observed on the hills in the autiimn of
1882, and one was shot at that time in the neighbouring parish of
Lyne. Last autumn one again appeared on the hills for a short
period, its presence being much resented by the Carrion Crows
{Corvus corone), which flew around and buffeted him in his flight.
I am informed that a pair bred this year in a rocky precipice called
" Bitch Craig," in the adjoining parish of Manor, but the young
were harried from the nest to be tamed, and kept as interesting
pets. Last year another nest was built at the same place, which
also suffered spoliation ; and thus the birds have been twice frus-
trated in their attempts to maintain the existence of the small
remnant now left in the Lowlands of Scotland.

Two very beautiful Waxwings {Bombycilla garrula) were shot by
a labourer near the Manse of Stobo on 26th January 1882. They
were feeding at the time on the berries of the Hawthorn, which
they seem to pick off and swallow entire. The pair showed little
distrust when approached, admitting a close inspection, so that the
quiet demeanour of the bird would seem to be expressive of its
disposition. Upwards of twenty years ago one was shot out of
a small flock near the same place, the numerous Hawthorn trees in
the vicinity having then also been the attraction.

Next on the list is the Red-throated Pipit {Anthus cervinus). I
have never had an opportunity of handling a specimen of this
species, but after a careful scrutiny of the coloured plate and per-
usal of the accompanying description in Morris's ' British Birds,'
I feel quite assured that I once saw a flock of eight or ten in the
parish. They were feeding on a bank of short turf, near a road
which ran close to one of the larger burns in this neighbourhood.
It was a spot where Meadow Pipits (Anthus pratensls) are fre-
quently seen, and at the first sight of their graceful running mo-

292 Transactions of the [Sess.

tions I concluded tliey must be these birds ; but, stealing up to
within fifteen yards of them, I saw their colour quite distinctly,
and was convinced that I had never identified any such species
before. The males and females could easily be distinguished — the
rose-coloured red on the breast and forepart of neck being very
visible on some of the birds, presumably the former, whilst on
others it was nearly or entirely awanting. Saving on that one
occasion, I never saw them before nor since.

The Crossbill {Loxia curvirostra) is a more assured visitor to
Stobo than the preceding species. The first occasion on which it
came under my notice was towards the end of August in 1873,
when a few small parties appeared and attracted attention by their
peculiar and far-sounding note. One or two being shot, their
identity was proved beyond doubt, and shortly thereafter I became
aware that large numbers had arrived in the district. Almost any
day one or more flocks might be seen composed of from six to
twelve individuals, and sometimes the numbers reached to upwards
of twenty. Most extensive feeding-grounds were at their disposal
in the large Pine woods ; but the birds showed a decided preference
for the smaller plantations, clumps, and straggling trees. The
Larch was at first almost exclusively resorted to, the seeds from the
cones near the top of the tree being always preferred. An instance
of their acuteness in distinguishing these trees from others once
came before me. A flock flew past at their usual rapid rate, and,
going in a straight line, would soon have disappeared ; but sud-
denly they turned at right angles and flew straight to a single
Larch, which they had espied in the midst of other trees many
hundred yards away. Their flight, except for its superior swift-
ness, is very much like that of the Greenfinch [Coccothraustes
chloris), and while on the wing their call-note is repeated almost
incessantly. This latter is not easily described, but has somewhat
of a ringing clearness about it, — the words " clink-a-link " pro-
nounced quickly may perhaps convey a slight idea of the sound.
On a quiet day the united voices of a flock are audible five hundred
yards off", consequently they are often heard when not seen. All
through the winter of 1873 and during the following spring the
Crossbills remained in the locality. A number probably shifted
their quarters early in spring, as they w^ere not noticed so fre-
quently towards the end of the season. One was shot from a flock
of six or seven on 23d April, and I observed two in May ; they
were male and female, and the former was feeding the latter, which
is an act I am inclined to believe they perform to a certain extent
throughout the year, as during their stay I remarked the operation
several times. No nest was found, though it is very probable that
a few might have been built ; and it seemed to me rather remark-
able that those birds which remained all spring were invariably

1885-86.] Edinburgh NaUiralists' Field Club. 293

herded together in flocks. They are described as breeding early
in foreign countries, as well as in other quarters of Great Britain ;
but many certainly did not incubate on the occasion of their notable
visit to Stobo. The winter of their sojourn was unusually mild,
snow not lying on the ground until February and March, and then
only to a slight extent. Other parts of Peeblesshire were also
visited by the birds at that period. In 1879, on 14th September,
I again saw a band of seven Crossbills ; and towards the end of
1883 these birds appeared twice or thrice during winter.

The Water Eail [Rallus aquaticus) is very seldom met with in
Stobo, Its sombre colours, assimilating well with its habitats,
may perchance enable it to elude more frequent notice. One which
was shot by a burn-side at the foot of the hills, not far from here, is
now in my collection.

The Goosander [Mergus merganser) is seen occasionally on the
Tweed in winter. Two were shot in the district, out of a small
flock, on February 8, 1877, one having in his mouth a newly
caught minnow, which he evidently intended for a bonne bouche — a
laudable desire never to be consummated, as death overtook him
ere he could swallow his victim.

The Oyster-Catcher {Hcematopus ostralegus), although not actu-
ally obtained in the parish, has been known to pass through it on
its way up and down the course of the Tweed, and one was shot in
July 1876 just outside the boundary.

With the mere mention of the lovely plumaged Kingfisher
[Alcedo ispidd), which visits us at rare intervals, this completes
the list of species selected for remark.

The acquisition of the material from which these notes have
been culled afforded me very great delight. Indeed, how few
keener pleasures are there than those which attend the discovery
of a rare bird ? But in addition to this pleasing excitement, the
study of ornithology is one in every way calculated to lead us to
higher thoughts of the Great Author of Nature, who, in the variety
and beauty of the feathered creation, as much as in any other of
His works, has made abundant provision for the enjoyment of man-
kind.

List of Species identified at Stobo.
Common Buzzard, Buteo vulgaris. ! Great Tit, Pa7-us major.

Rough-legged Buzzard, Buteo lagopus.
Merlin, Falco cesalon.
Sparrow- Hawk, Accipiter nisus.
Kestrel, Falco tinnunculus.
Tawny Owl, Stiix aluco.
Long-eared Owl, Asio olus.
Grey Shrike, Lanius excubitor.
Blue Tit, Parus coiruleus.

Cole Tit, Parus attr.

Long-tailed Tit, Acredula caudata.

Spotted Flycatcher, Muscicapa gri-

sola.
Pied Flycatcher, Muscicapa atrica-

pilla.
Kingfisher, Alcedo ispida.
Raven, Corvus corax.

294

Transactions of tJie

[Sess.

Carrion Crow, Gorvus corone.
E-ook, Gorvus frugilegus.
Jackdaw, Gorvus moneduia.
Magpie, Pica rustica.
Waxwing, Bombycilla garrula.
Creeper, Gerthia familiaris.
Cuckoo, Gucidus canorus.
Nightjar, Gaprimvlgus europceus.
Swift, Gypselus apus.
Chimney Swallow, Hirundo rustica.
House-Martin, Ghelidon urbica.
Sand-Martin, Gotile riparia.
Pied Wagtail, Motacilla lugiibris.
Grey Wagtail, Motacilla sulphurea.
Titlark, Anthus pratensis.
Tree Pipit, Anthus trivialis.
Red-throated Pipit, Anthits cervinus.

Skylark, Alauda arvensis.

Corn Bunting, Emleriza miliaria.
Yellow Bunting, Eraberiza citrinella.

Snow Bunting, Plectrophanes nivalis.

Reed Bunting, Emheriza schoeniclus.

Chaffinch, Fringllla ccp.lebs.

Mountain Finch, Fringilla montifrin-
gilla.

Sparrow, Passer domesticus.

Greenfinch, Goccothraustes chloris.

Siskin, Garduelis spinus.

Redpole, Linota rufcsccns.

Bullfinch, Pyrrhula euroj^cea.

Crossbill, Loxia curvirostra.

Starling, Sturnus vulgaris.

Water-Ousel, Ginclus aquaticus.

Missel Thrush, Turdus viscivorus.

Mavis, Turdus musicus.

Fieldfare, Turdus pilaris.

Redwing, Turdus iliacus.

Blackbird, Turdus merida.

Ring-Ousel, Turdus torquatus.

Hedge- Sparrow, Accentor modulai^is.

Robin, Erithacus ruhecula.

Redstart, Ruticilla phcenicurus.

Wheatear, Saxicola cenanthe.

Whinchat, Saxicola ruhetra.

Sedge Warbler, Salicaria phragmitis.

Blackcap, Sylvia atricapiilla.

Garden Warbler, Sylvia scdicaria.

Whitethroat, Sylvia riifa.

Wood Warbler, PhyUoscopus sibilatrix.

Willow Warbler, PhyUoscopus troch-

ilus.
Wren, Troglodytes parvulus.
Goldcrest, Regidus cristatus.
Wood Pigeon, Golumba columhus.
Pheasant, Phasianus colchicus.
Black Grouse, Tetrao tetrix.
Red Grouse, Lagopus scoticus.
Partridge, Perdix cinerea.
Golden Plover, Gharadrius pluvialis.
Peewit, Vanellus cristatus.
Oyster - Catcher, Hcematopus ostra-

legus.
Heron, Ardea cinerea.
Curlew, Numenius arquata.
Common Sandpiper, Totanus hypoleu-

cos.
Woodcock, Scolopax rusticola.
Snipe, Scolopax gallinago.
Land-Rail, Grex pratensis.
Water-Rail, Rcdlus aquaticus.
Moor-Hen, Gallinula chloropus.
Coot, Fulica atra.
Teal, Anas crecca.
Mallard, Anas boschas.
Goosander, Mergus merganser.
Little Grebe, Podicep)S minor.
Common Gull, Larus canus.
Black-headed Gull, La7'us riclibundus.
Herring Gull, Larus argentatus.
Barn or White Owl, Aluco flammeus.

VI.— THE FUNGUS FORAY IN BOSLIN GLEN.

By Mr A. B. STEELE.

(Read Dec. 18, 1885.)

The first " Fungus Foray " of the Club took place last summer
on the last Saturday of September, In the morning the weather
was unfortunately unfavourable, and prevented many members
from joining the excursion. With a muster of about twenty

1S85-86.] Edinburgh Naturalists' Field Club. 295

members, including a few ladies, we started for Koslin with the
afternoon train, and walked through Roslin Glen to Polton. Our
first find was in the small cemetery near Eoslin Castle. It was
the commonest of the Agarics — Agaricus fascicularis — with its
yellow umbonate pileus, adnata gills turning green, hollow stem,
and black vanishing veil. It grows abundantly in tufts at the
foot of old trees and gate-posts. It resembles slightly Agaricus
mutabilis, which was found in almost as great quantity when we
got fairly into the woods. Its habitat is the same. The gills,
however, are subdecurrent and reddish brown, with stuffed stem.
In the pasture-ground below the chapel was found, growing in
large rings, the Sooty Agaric — Agaricus grammopodius — with its
dark slightl}^ umbonate cap, gills adnate dirty white, and fur-
rowed solid stem. Several specimens of the large Scorched
Agaric — Agaricus adustus — were collected, the pileus of which is
ash colour, olive and at length dark as if burnt, from which it takes
its specific name. The gills are white, and the stem when cut
transversely is of a sponge-like texture. A variety of this Agaric
— Agaricus elephantinus, Soio. — which has the cup brownish-
yellow, gills yellowish-white, and stem solid, was also got, but not
identified at the time. Three very common Agarics — Agaricus
laccatus, A. rimosus, and A. foenisecii — were found in large
quantities all through the glen ; but we only once observed the
very common Agaric, Agaricus micaceiis. It was growing in
large clusters on a fallen and decaying tree. It has the pileus
slightly furrowed and brownish, pale and at length black gills,
and slender stem. It takes its specific name from the effect
caused by the young plant, which shines in the sun as if covered
with particles of mica. An allied species, Agaricus atramentarius,
was found near the same spot, but not so plentifully. Like its
relative, it grows in tufts ; and they are both species, says Greville,
of a striking group, whose very singular property it is to dissolve
in decay, and almost entirely to disappear in an inky fluid. Two
other species, Agaricus conicus and A. dealbatus — the latter said
to be edible — were also collected in the same spot. A specimen
or two of Agaricus variabilis, made famous by the researches of
Professor Oersted, were found growing on dead branches. Though
not uncommon, it is interesting by its resupinate and afterwards
reflexed pileus, and the absence of a stem. About this spot the
President, a keen observer, picked up a tiny Agaric growing among
moss. I was not able to name it at the time, but I afterwards
identified it as a very small specimen of the Black-stemmed Agaric
— Agaricus androsaceus. The only rare species among the
Agarics collected that day were Agaricus rubescens, With.,
having a polished reddish - brown pileus, rufous gills, and
solid stem ; and Agaricus virescens. Fries, with a roughish

296 Transactions of the [Sess.

green cap, unequal forked gills, and white, solid, almost smooth
stem. The former is of a highly poisonous nature, while
the latter, on the authority of Berkeley and Mrs Hussey, is
one of the edible species. Among the Auricularini we got Auricula
refiesa, now classed among the Polypori, and called Polyporus
versicolor, with a buff, yellow, or brown, smooth hymenium, and
reflexed zoned pileus, exceedingly common on dead trunks and
branches of trees throughout the whole year. Three other Poly-
pori or Sap-balls were collected — one a tolerably large specimen of
Polyporus squamosus, the largest species of our British Fungi. It
was detached from its habitat, but was too moist and decayed to
be carried away. It is known by its scaly fleshy pileus and sub-
lateral stem, and grows on stumps of decaying trees, chiefly those
of the Ash. The other species were Polyporus ulmarius and P.
vulgaris. What I called a Clavaria — the Clavaria hypoxylon of
Withering — is now grouped among the Ascomycetes, and called
Xylaria hypoxylon, Sioio. The hymenium is branched like the
horns of a Eeindeer, downy at the base, and black and white to-
wards the apex. The only Puff-ball collected was found by a lady,
and was a young plant of Lycoperdon verrucosum, with a warty
yellowish-brown peridium, and when full grown has a large
lacunose stem, thickened at the base, the peridium bursting at the
apex. Among Pezizee three species were found — Peziza virginea,
with a longish stipes and hemispherical subpatulate pileus ; P.
hirsuta, with a sessile sub -hemispherical cupule, an inflexed
margin, and vermilion-coloured inside ; and P. aurantia, with
cupule nearly sessile, irregular, oblique, orange, whitish externally,
and somewhat pruinose. We collected altogether about twenty-
five different species ; and had the season been more propitious to
the growth of these plants, I have no doubt that double that num-
ber would have been got in a locality so favourable to fungoid
growth. A week or two after our excursion, our fellow-member,
Mr James Monteith, went over the same ground, and sent me a
small box containing a dozen species collected by himself, seven
of which were not found on the day of the excursion. These
were — Agaricus fimiputris, A. velutipes, A. umbelliferus, and A.
varius ; Dgedalea quercina, Peziza tuba, and Nectria cinnabarina.

1885-86.] EdmburgJi Naturalists' Field Club. 297

VIL— DISCOVERY OF THE WATER-SPIDER (ARGYRONETA
AQUATIC A) NEAR BALERNO.

By Mr A. B. HERBERT.

(Read Dec. 18, 1885.)

When the Club visited tlie bog at Bavelaw last summer, we had
not sufficient time to thoroughly investigate the locality ; so on the
4th August, a bright and warm day, I went with some of my chil-
dren for a further search, both for wild plants and also objects for
a fresh-water aquarium. The peat-pits on the bog contain tliou-
sands of Frogs and Tadpoles in the early spring. The Dytiscus mar-
ginalis we have also found there, and the larva? of the large Dragon-
fly ; and it was while searching for the latter, by drawing out some
Myriophyllum from one of the pits, that I saw a Spider creeping
on the moss, which I at once recognised as the Argyroneta aqua-
tica. Further investigation brought to light many specimens, in
various stages of growth, of this peculiar species of the Arachnidaj ;
and on the surface of one of the pits, floating on the Myriophyllum, we
observed several white silken bags, about the size of a filbert, which
proved to be the Water-spiders' nests, and full of very minute young
ones. These, in this early stage of life, are quite white. Three of
the full-grown Spiders I sent by post to a scientific friend in Lon-
don, who informed me they were all females. At home I at once
established, at a cost of tenpence, a small Spider aquarium, con-
sisting of a confectioner's glass, 9 inches high by 4 inches in dia-
meter, with perforated zinc top, in which I placed a few sprigs of
Anacharis from the Canal, and the Spiders have lived in this jar
from the 4th August to the present time. My difficulty with the
Spiders was not knowing their natural food. There were among
the Anacharis many minute forms of animal life, such as small
Crustacea and Coleoptera, but I cannot be certain that the Spiders
ever fed upon these. My first attempt at feeding was with a Blue-
bottle fly ; and the Spider's proceeding with this was interesting
to watch. He placed the fly down among the weed, then spun a
single thread of web to the surface, and, running up this, he brought
down a bubble of air and fixed it in the weed ; then up again for
another supply of air to add to the first — these journeys, voyages,
or divings being repeated till the air-bubble was of considerable
size, and dome-shaped. He then fetched the fly and pushed it up
from below into the air-bubble, and then, placing himself inside
with the fly, remained quiescent for some time, no doubt feeding
on his prey. The Spiders, I find, will eat flies, gnats, and ear-
wigs, but are not very partial to the last. They seem to lie

298 ' Transactions of the [Sess.

almost dormant at this time of the year. They are interesting
subjects for observation ; and the globule of air, which envelopes
the whole of the body except the head and thorax, gives them the
brilliant appearance of being coated with quicksilver — and this
silvery aspect is, no doubt, the reason for their scientific name of
Argyroneta.

Our fellow-member, Mr Archibald Gray, was the first to discover
these Arachnidfe at Luffness, a considerable distance to the east of
Edinburgh ; and we now know that they are in no small numbers
seven miles to the west. We may therefore, I think, conclude
that they are not so very rare in this neighbourhood ; and it is ex-
tremely probable we may hear of them in other clear-water pools
near Edinburgh.

I may remark that I believe Snipes breed on the Bavelaw bog,
for I flushed one, which seemed very reluctant to leave, and pitched
again within a few yards ; and this occurred on two occasions on
different days. I may also mention that while at Bavelaw, on the
4th August, I took the opportunity of transplanting some of the
Linna3a borealis to other suitable localities in the Fir-wood, select-
ing those places where the soil was of a similar character to that
where the plant now grows, — as it is, and I trust ever will be, the
object of our Club to disseminate rather than extirpate all otir
rarer indigenous plants.

VIII.— LIST OF THE LESS COMMON PLANTS GATHERED AT
THE EXCURSIONS DURING 1885, WITH LOCALITIES.

By Mr ANDREW MOFFAT, Secretaet.
[Read Jan. 22, 1886.)

The plants included in the following list were those gathered at
the Club's excursions during 1885, so far as they differ from those
gathered in 1884 [vide p. 254 et seq.) Plants when once noted
are not repeated, unless recorded from different localities.

Brassica nigra, Boiss. Inchkeith. Very abundant.
Cerastium arvense, L. Queen's Park, near Echoing Eock.

Although this plant was not gathered at a Club excursion, I take
this opportunity of recording its occurrence in this locality. Seven
or eight years ago I got it here, but was never again able to gather
it till May 1885.

Viola lutea, Huds. Blackford Hill.
Dianthus deltoides, L. Same locality.

1885-86.] Edinburgh Naturalists' Field Club. 299

Geranium pyrenaicum, L. Craigmillar Castle and vicinity.

Geranium dissectum, L, Same locality.

Geranium lucidum, L. Same locality.

Geranium Phaeum, L. Woods around Dysart House. A gar-
den escape — naturalised.

Potentilla reptans, L. By the roadside leading from Dudding-
ston Station to Craigmillar Castle.

Notwithstanding the various changes in this locality, the above
station is identical with that referred to by Dr Greville in his
' Flora Edinensis,' published in 1824.

Smyrnium Olusatrum, L. Craigmillar Castle.

This plant, having been formerly cultivated as a pot-herb, has
most probably been introduced into this locality.

Ligusticum scoticum, L. Inchkeitli.
Erytliraea pulchella, Fries. Gullane Links.
Anchusa sempervirens, L. Craigmillar Castle.
Hyoscyamus niger, L. Gullane Links.

Mimulus luteus, L. In ditches near Dysart House. Natur-
alised from North America.

Lathraea squamaria, L. Eoslin Woods.
Utricularia vulgaris, L. Gullane Links.
Anagallis tenella, L. Gullane Links.
Rumex scutatus, L.

This, the French or Garden Sorrel, introduced from France in
1596, is naturalised on the walls of Craigmillar Castle.

Lepturus filiformis, Trin. Aberlady.
Asplenium septentrionale, Hull. Blackford Hill.

IX.— ON THE OBJECTS AND METHODS OF METEOROLOGY.

By Mr ALEX. FRAZER, M.A.

{Jem.. 22, 1886.)

At the request of the Council, Mr Alex. Frazer, M.A., delivered a
lecture to the members of the Club " On the Objects and Methods
of ]\Ieteorology." The lecture was of a practical nature through-
out, describing in detail the mechanism of such " weather-instru-
ments " as the thermometer, barometer, and anemometer, and the
various improvements effected from time to time on their con-
struction. Particular attention was given to wind-storms, and the

300 Transactions of the . [Sess.

different modes of calculating their velocity — the lecturer describ-
ing an anemometer designed and constructed by himself for this
purpose. The lecture was illustrated by specimens of the several
instruments described, as well as by a series of wall-diagrams.

X.— VERONICAS IN THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF EDINBURGH.

By Me MARK KING.
[ReadJan. 22, 1886.)

In one of those charming little books on Natural History by John
Burroughs, that genial and enthusiastic American naturalist thus
speaks of the Veronicas or Speedwells, which soon arrested his
attention on his first visit to this country. " The prettiest of all
humble roadside flowers I saw," he says, " was the little blue Speed-
well. I was seldom out of sight of it anywhere in my walks till
near the end of June ; while its little bands and assemblages of
deep-blue flowers in the grass by the roadside, turning a host of
infantile faces up to the sun, often made me pause and admire." ^
And truly none of our early summer flowers are more worthy of
observation. The Speedwell is pre-eminently a poet's flower, and
there are many beautiful and tempting allusions to it in our poeti-
cal literature. But I would pass by all these for the present, desir-
ing rather to give a few descriptive hints which may be of use to
some of our younger members, or to those only beginning the study
of British plants, in enabling them to identify the various commoner
species, which may nearly all, without much trouble, be met with in
short excursions round our own city. Veronicas, amongst other
plants, have occupied my attention for many years, and they have
been to me an ever-increasing source of delight. If I can enlist
any to begin their field-work with them, I would fain believe that
an interest will thus be evoked which will not stop short until the
whole of Flora's domain has been investigated.

Veronicas differ in habit — some being weak and trailing, while
others are firm and erect ; and their habitats are likewise various —
some loving the marsh or the river-bank, while others flourish in
the ploughed field, or the shady wood, or by the dusty roadside.
Yet a Veronica need never be mistaken for any other British plant,
from the characteristics of possessing two stamens and having a
rotate corolla. These constant features are a sufficient guide to

1 'Fresh Fields '—" A Glance at British Wild Flowers." By John Bur-
roughs.

1885-86.] EdinbiirgJi Naturalists' Field Club. 301

the identification of the whole family. Other marks of our British
species are, that their blossoms are arranged either in axillary or
terminal racemes, which are usually blue, but occasionally white,
or some shade of lilac. The transition of leaves into bracts is also
very abrupt, these latter becoming large and leaf-like. In treating
of Veronicas, their duration as annuals or perennials furnishes a
simple and natural mode of grouping, and other points can be
noted as we proceed. Twelve species have been admitted into the
Edinburgh Flora, but of these one at least has probably been
introduced. Of these twelve species, seven are perennials and five
annuals. Taking the perennials first, we find that all of them
have stoutish, more or less upright stems ; and all but one (V. ser-
pyllifolia) have spikes or racemes of flowers proceeding from the
axils of the leaves. V. Beccabunga grows in streams or ditches,
and is a very handsome species, with a thick smooth stem and
opposite bright-green leaves, which are sometimes eaten as a salad.
The flowering period extends from May to August, and the little
bright-blue flowers are sometimes called Forget-me-nots. Another
Veronica frequenting the borders of ditches and watery places is
V. Anagallis, or the Water Speedwell, which may be easily recog-
nised by its tall, thick, holloio stem, and its smooth, stalkless, and
lance-shaped leaves, which clasp the stem. As its common name
implies, this Speedwell prefers damp situations, though not absol-
utely requiring such a locality, for I have found it by the margin
of Duddingston Loch, in the hardened mud, yet flowering and fruit-
ing abundantly. Another watev-loving species is V. scutellata, or
the Marsh Speedwell, with leaves very like the last named, but
smaller, and faintly toothed, while the pale-blue or flesh-coloured
blossoms are a little larger than V. Anagallis. I have found this
plant not so abundant as its neighbour, the Water Speedwell : per-
•haps, from its smaller leaves and more straggling habit, it may be
apt to be overlooked. Leaving now the marsh for the dry ground,
our next example is V. Chamtedrys, or the Germander Speedwell —
one of the prettiest of our wayside flowers, its spikes of bright-blue
blossoms peeping out from dry banks and hedgerows from early
May to the end of June. This flower, with its alternate pairs of
leaves, and its two i^oios of hairs changing sides with each pair, is
familiar to all of its in our walks round the outskirts of the city.
A mere catalogue of its uses in rustic medicines in former times
would take up far more space than the subject is worth. For in-
stance, as a cure for gout and in cancer, it is -recommended by old
Gerard in " good broth of a hen " ; and another old herbalist urges
its use " for all diseases of the brain." In dry banks and pastures,
as well as in woods, you will find the Common Speedwell (V. offi-
cinalis). It may at once be identified by its hairy stem, egg-
shaped leaves on short stalks, and small, very pale blue or lilac

VOL. I. X

302 Transactions of the [Sess.

flowers, borne in long spikes. The astringent leaves were at one
time used in this country for tea, and are still so used in France.
With V. montana I have never yet had the good fortune to meet in
a growing state, but I exhibit a dried specimen from the south of
England. Its chief features are the very pale green of the leaves,
with their long hairy footstalks. The last of the perennial species
is V. serpy Hi folia, or the Thyme-leaved Speedwell. This is a very
common species, found on dry banks and waste places. It grows
to a height of about four inches, and has small whitish flowers with
blue veins, and narrow leaves not unlike those of the plant whose
name it has adopted.

We now pass on to the commoner annual species. As already
said, these may be reckoned as five in number ; and four of them
are weak trailing plants, with flowers borne singly in the axils of
the leaves. The fifth (V. arvensis) has an upright stem, and the
flowers are borne in a terminal spike, like V. serpyllifolia amongst
the perennials. Of the trailers, we may take first in order V. hederee-
folia, or the Ivy-leaved Speedwell, with very pale-blue flowers,
which appear in succession as the branch lengthens, and the cells
of the capsule containing one or two seeds. This species is one of
the first to flower of all the Speedwells, being sometimes found in
January, and with the advancing year it straggles more and more,
becoming visibly weaker. Our next species, known as Buxbaum's
Speedwell (V. Buxbaumii), is considered by some of our best botan-
ists as a doubtful native of Britain. As far as my experience goes,
it is somewhat rare in the Edinburgh Flora, though very abundant
where it does occur. Its first appearance in Scotland was in Ber-
wickshire, where it was noticed in 1850 by Dr George Johnston,
and figured and described by him in his elegant work, the ' Botany
of the Eastern Borders.' It must be admitted the honour of being
by far the handsomest of the annual forms, with its large bright-
blue blossoms — though the small lobe of the corolla is always
lighter in colour, sometimes nearly white. Its leaves are oblong,
dark-green in colour, and deeply serrated. Y, arvensis, or the
Field Speedwell, is a misnomer, for it no more grows in fields than
V. montana is to be found on elevations. It must be looked for
on dry old wall-tops, or even by the dusty roadside, where it will
be found with a stem three or four inches long ; but when growing
on a moist bank, as it may occasionally be found, the stem may
have increased to eighteen inches. But it is pre-eminently a wall
plant ; and though the flowers are very small, seldom exceeding
one-eighth of an inch in diameter, yet growing as it does in patches,
its pale-blue corolla and little white eye form a very pleasing object.
Its petioled lower leaves and alternate bracts, together with its
flattened seed-vessels, furnish further marks for identification. Our
fourth annual species is V. agrestis, or the Green Field Speedwell.

1885-86.] Edinburgh Naturalists' Field Club. 303

This plant is well known in every field and garden, and may per-
haps be characterised by some irate farmer or gardener as " a per-
nicious weed," seeing it has a decided preference for cultivated
ground, and when it has obtained a footing it is very difficult to
eradicate. It has a white corolla, sometimes tinged with blue. Its
leaves are small, pale-green in colour, with regular serratures ; and
it continues to flower till killed off by frost. In mild winters it
survives, and flowers the next summer, thus becoming a biennial.
The last of our annual forms — V. polita, or the Grey Field Speed-
well— is by some considered as merely a variety of V, agrestis.
But its flowers are larger, and ivholly blue ; and the serratures of
the leaves are deeper, and not so regular. By these marks it may
be readily distinguished.

It may be interesting to compare the occurrence of some of the
Veronicas above mentioned, near our own city, with their presence
in the West. Mr Turner, of the Glasgow Natural History Society,
informs me, for instance, that V. Buxbaumii " occurs in some abun-
dance about Loch Lomond and elsewhere in the West, but is very
rare in the immediate neighbourhood of Glasgow " — just as in the
neighbourhood of our own city. " It is a weed, however," he adds,
" that appears to be spreading, so that it may probably be too
common before long." Again, as regards V. 'Anagallis, which is
found at Duddingston and some other places with us, Mr Turner
says it " is very rare in the district, though it occurs in a few coast
stations. There is only one inland station recorded for it, — ' near
Flenders, beyond Busby.' " V. scutellata and V. montana, which
are both rare with us, the latter especially, Mr Turner adds " are
both frequent in the neighbourhood of the city, — the former grow-
ing in boggy places, and the latter in woods and shady places."

A word or two in conclusion as to the drying of Veronicas. My
own experience is, I daresay, similar to that of most who have
tried thus to preserve them — namely, that they are " eminently
unsatisfactory." The gamopetalous corolla falls off generally
soon after the plants are gathered ; while in the process of drying,
a sad change of colour frequently takes place, — what was before
so bright and beautiful becoming a mass of dirty black. In order
to obviate these untoward conditions as far as possible, the plants
should be transferred to bibulous paper as soon as gathered, and
submitted to pressure by strapping. On reaching home they
should be placed between fresh sheets of paper, and a warm iron
passed over them. By these means there is some chance that the
blossoms may be preserved, and the Colour to some extent remain
intact. But if any of the members of the Field Club know of a
better method of preserving these beautiful, humble wayside flowers,
I for one shall feel very glad indeed to hear of it.

304 Tra7isactions of the [Sess.

XL— THE RING AND WATER OUSELS: THEIR HOMES

AND HABITS.

By Mr ARCH. CRAIG, Jun.

{Read Feb. 19, 1886.)

The two species which are the subject of the ensuing remarks
have been selected, not because of their rarity, as they are far
from uncommon, but for various other reasons which seem to me
sufSciently valid to create more than a momentary interest, and
repay the slight trouble and time expended upon their examina-
tion. The rare bird is not of necessity the most interesting, as,
considering the fact that such may only be observed once or twice
in a lifetime, and then possibly only for a few mintites, no oppor-
tunity of studying its habits is attainable. It is quite otherwise,
however, with our common species, whose sojourn in this country,
even if migratory, is of suflScient length to permit of comparatively
close watching ; and consequently many little traits and pleasing
actions may be marked, that add greatly to our knowledge and
increase our pleasure at the same time.

Briefly stated, the following are a few of the reasons which I
have thought potent enough to warrant this selection : First, the
two, although bearing the same popular name, are of different
genera — the Eing-Ousel {Turdus torquatus) belonging to the family
of Turdidce or Thrushes, and the Water-Ousel [Ginclus aquaticus)
being the sole representative, in Scotland, of the genus Cinclidee.
Second, they serve as illustrations of two classes of feathered fauna
— the former being a migrant, and the latter a constant resident.
Third, the plumage of both, besides bearing a certain similarity, is
peculiar, and almost unique, among our native land-birds — the dis-
tinct contrast between the black and white giving to both a cleanly,
sprightly appearance, which more brilliantly attired species do not
possess. Fourth, both are solitary in disposition, and frequent
equally those lonely situations where other bird-life is not abun-
dant. Fifth — and this is applicable to one only — notwithstanding
its comparative harmlessness, the Water-Ousel is an example of
that ignorant prejudice which is the origin of the phrase, " Give a
dog a bad name," &c. — as for long it has been subject to constant
senseless persecution at the hands of salmon-fishers and their too
ready satellites, the motives for which cruelty will be adverted to
more fully later on. Sixth, and lastly — although the reasons might
be multiplied considerably, and I fear you will consider this one
the weakest of all — these species have always been especial favour-
ites of my own ; and as an easy day's walk from town during the

1885-86.] Edinbitrgh Naturalists' Field Club. 305

Slimmer months will bring one in contact with both, I can only ex-
press the hope that some members of the Club will next season
take the trouble to make their acquaintance.

Take first the Eing-Ousel. As already indicated, it is a migrant,
arriving in Scotland about April and departing southwards again
in September or October. It seems to return to its old | nesting-
ground with marked regularity ; yet, what appears somewhat
strange, the numbers of the species show no perceptible increase
in any one locality, and this is all the more wonderful! as each
pair rear at least four or five young every season. We are there-
fore inclined to think that the entire brood, even taken for granted
that they still exist, do not accompany their parents on the return
journey in spring ; or, if they do, they are not permitted to nest
near at hand, but scatter over likely localities in the neighbour-
hood, where they supply the place of those whom accident or other
causes have prevented from migrating. Occasional specimens may
be noticed in winter, but these are clearly exceptions to the
general rule. In Glen Urqnhart, Inverness-shire, where as great
numbers may be observed as in any other part of Scotland, certain
definite localities are selected for their residence, and year after
year these are occupied by single pairs — there always being a
considerable distance between each couple. This would lead to
the belief that each pair monopolise a certain tract, and during the
incubating period, until the young have flown at any rate, they
adhere very closely to the same spot. There is one particular
portion of a mountain-burn in the aforementioned glen where,
within a radius of a few hundred yards, a pair of these birds (not,
of course, the same pair) have nested for a greater number of years
than can be authenticated even by the accommodating memory of
that venerable and often-quoted impostor, " the oldest inhabitant."
As a sequel to this affection for the same spots, it may be as well to
indicate shortly the class of country frequented by the species.
On arriving in Britain it immediately hies to the wilder and more
mountainous regions, shunning the lowland, wooded, and culti-
vated parts. Eocky hillsides, where scattered clumps of juniper
and whin bushes break iip the bare monotony of the scenery ; the
banks of mountain-burns, which, in the course of centuries, have
worn for themselves deep and rugged channels ; high-lying Fir
plantations, — all these are favourite resorts. In the Highlands
particularly, the home of the Ring - Ousel is associated with
scenes of the wildest and most picturesque grandeur ; and it
is no unusual circumstance, when resting by the side of one of
those lovely ravines that occur in such numbers among the muir-
land solitudes, to be startled by the sudden sharp "tuk-tuk"of
this bird, who, by his gestures as well as his voice, seems to
resent intrusion into his haunts.

3o6 Transactions of the [Sess.

Perhaps no inland species has better opportunities for rearing its
young in safety than this, the very isolated nature of its dwelling
being sufficient safeguard against interference. The nest is com-
monly placed in a juniper or whin bush, or, where such a site is im-
practicable, under shelter of the heather or overhanging rock ; and
when in either of those two latter situations, it is matter of no
small difficulty to detect the same, the general appearance and
colour assimilating so well with surrounding objects. One which
came under my notice lay in a hollow of the bare rock without any
sheltering cover whatever ; but so admirably did it resemble the hue
of the lichen-covered stones around, that it might have been passed
a dozen times without detection. In appearance it strongly resem-
bles the habitation of the Blackbird, as do also the eggs — in fact,
in many ways the family likeness between the two is remarkably
strong, hence the origin of three at least of its popular cognomens,
the Mountain, Muir, and Einged Blackbird. It is possessed of the
same kindred penchant for skulking under bushes as our more
familiar friend, and flies off with a similar succession of indignant
notes when it conceives that hiding is of no further avail. Its very
song has a distant relationship to that of Turdus merula, but with
this difference, — it lacks the beautiful musical modulations and
variety that are such well known and appreciated features of our
everyday acquaintance. If you can imagine the loud clear whistle
of the Blackbird reiterated several times in succession with laud-
able persistency and no attempt at diversity, you have some idea
of the Eing-Ousel's song. In itself by no means charming, it
requires all the wildness of the environs to counterbalance its
musical defects ; but still, in spite of that, it possesses a' certain
charm that somehow conveys a sense of pleasure to the hearer,
and is quite congenial to the locality where it nests. The time
par excellence to hear it is the early morning, between five and
eight o'clock, in the clear bright weather of the month of May.
Although it sings more or less all day, and lustily towards even-
ing, it seems to put more pith and energy into its song at that
early hour : perhaps, however, the quietness all around and the
sharp atmosphere have something to do with the intensity of its
pipe. The first time it was my good fortune to hear it was in
Inverness-shire many years ago, about 6 a.m. in the beginning of
summer. Climbing up a steep hill, when fully three-quarters of a
mile distant the notes sounded as clearly as if the bird were within
. a hundred yards. The strain was quite new to me, so I followed
it up and traced it to a rocky eminence which rose high above the
adjacent muirland. Once having located the song, as it were,
it was not such an easy matter to discover the songster. Fully
fifteen minutes of judicious sneaking about elapsed ere a sight of
his white collar was caught, the wearer of which was perched right

1885-86.] Edinburgh Naturalists' Field Chib. 307

on the summit of the rock, from which coign of vantage he had no
doubt been watching all the time, with a jealous eye, the intruder
upon his haunts.

It is rather curious, when we turn our thoughts upon the sub-
ject, how so many birds and animals resemble, in a general sense,
the hues of surrounding objects ; and yet if the shades of their
feathers or other outside covering are compared with the colour-
ings that pervade the material objects in the immediate vicinity,
they are quite dissimilar. It seems to me that this can be ac-
counted for easily enough in the following manner. If you take
a bird itself whose plumage is not marked by violent contrasts —
such as pure black and white, or other opposite characteristics —
you will find on close examination that its feathers are composed
of various tones and shades of colour ; yet when we retire to a
short distance these blend together, and the owner thereof seems
to be of one uniform shade. Very much the same effect is pro-
duced when an ordinarily dull-plumaged bird sits upon the ground :
the rocks, the soil, the grass, the heather, and the bird are all
different when taken separately — but collectively, a general sim-
ilarity of hue affects the whole, and the latter merges, so to speak,
into the general tone, and is lost. This, of course, is purely theo-
retical, and to some of you it may appear a very questionable
theory indeed. The plumage is not unlike that of the Blackbird,
wdth this difference, that the feathers of the male are not so jetty
black, and the margins are more or less edged with grey : the
white gorget, again, is a distinguishing feature ; the bill also is
not so brilliant in the orange, and the point of it is black. The
female is browner in shade, like the corresponding sex of the
Blackbird ; the points of the feathers have a tendency to be greyer
than those of the male ; the white neckcloth is not so wide, and is
mingled largely with brownish feathers, which detract from the
pure white. At first the young have no white across the breast,
but in a short time the cocks begin to show a faint indication that
some day it will appear more prominently ; but in the young hens
there is no trace of it for a long time after they are fledged. Before
the brood is hatched it would be hard to find a shyer species, or
one more difficult to approach. The open nature of the ground
frequented gives it such admirable opportunities for keeping a
look-out and acting on the defensive, that once it observes you are
bent upon following it up, it will lead you such a dance that in
the long-run, after hours of hunting, you are forced from very
weariness to give up the chase ; and if you are human at all, your
stock of patience will have long ere that issue flown to the winds
along with your temper. It will sit upon a knoll or rock, out of
gunshot, however, giving vent to an angry chuckling note, and as
you close up, off it flies to another. You follow, and away it starts

308

Transactions of the

[Sess.

again, sometimes, by way of variation, taking a clear flight of half
a mile to a mile before settling. I myself stalked one for three
days over a wide trackless muir, and for all I know he may be
there yet, unless he has in the interim fallen a victim to some
more fortunate enthusiast. When the young have flown, a great
deal of this shyness of disposition disappears, and the bird does
not seem to place such value on its personal safety, as at that
period you can approach comparatively close without exciting
alarm. It may be as well to state at this juncture, to prevent mis-
apprehension, that even at the nesting-time, so long as you make
no attempt to hunt it, the bird will sometimes alight quite close
to where you are sitting ; but on the slightest signs of hostile in-
tentions it is on the qui vive at once, self-preservation being its
predominating tendency on these occasions. To enumerate all the
localities in Scotland which this bird frequents would be a rather
serious task ; suffice to say that it is distributed pretty evenly all
over the Highlands and the mountainous districts of the Lowlands,
including our own Pentlands and Lammermuirs. There is one
particular glen in the first-named range of hills where considerable
numbers may be noticed, and perhaps I may be permitted to refer
shortly to that habitat. One of the old tracks, now marked out by
posts erected at the instance of the Scottish Eights of Way Asso-
ciation, extends from Bavelaw Castle, above Balerno, to Logan Lea
Eeservoir, where the regular Water Company's road commences.
This is as pretty and romantic a spot as any in the Pentlands, and
well worthy the attention of members of the Naturalists' Field Club.
From Balerno, four hours' smart walking will bring the pedestrian
to Glencorse Station at Greenlaw Barracks, so that it forms an
easy and pleasant afternoon's excursion. The path, barely dis-
tinguishable at several points, runs for a few miles through a deep
valley, from which the hills rise abruptly, the sides being in many
parts composed of masses of loose stone and jagged rock, attaining
almost to the precipitous — a veritable Highland glen in miniature.
Its solitary wild nature offers great attractions to the Eing-Ousels,
and during summer it is taken advantage of by sundry pairs, who
are here permitted to bring forth their broods in peace. In ad-
dition to this species, the following are certain to be seen or
heard : —

Grouse, Laqopus scoticus.
Curlew, Numenius arquata.
Peewit, Vanelhis cristatus.
Cuckoo, Cuculus canorus.
Wheatear, Saxicola cenantht.

Common Sandpiper, Totanus hypo-

leucos.
Whinchat, Saxicola rubetra.
Titlark, A nthus pratensis.
Water-Ousel, Cinclus aquaticus.

Occasionally, too, we get a glimpse of that most persecuted of
the persecuted, the Magpie [Pica rustica) ; and when we include

1885-86.] Edinburgh Naturalists' Field Club. 309

all the numerous smaller fry, such as Warblers, Titmice, and the
like, that swarm in the woods both at the Balerno and Glencorse
ends of the road, it is extremely doubtful if any walk of similar
duration in the vicinity of Edinburgh can show up to such advan-
tage in the matter of ornithological varieties. The two Ousels are
by no means confined to this part of the Pentlands, as both are fairly
numerous all over the range, and the water species may be observed
even at present so close to town as the Braid Burn, although un-
happily banished for ever from the banks of that pellucid stream,
the Pow. In autumn, prior to migration, the Ring-Ousels often
descend to the low grounds, and assist their congeners the Black-
bird and Mavis to clear off the rowan-berries from the trees ; and
as this happens in many seasons immediately before they depart,
they may almost be said to carry a taste of the wild north-land
along with them to the sunnier climes of the south. Leaving
them en route, therefore, let us turn for a few minutes to culti-
vate the acquaintance of our stay-at-home species, the Water-
Ousel.

The Water-Ousel is seldom or never seen far away from the side
of a stream or loch, and unfrequently even in the vicinity of the
latter — the clear mountain-burn or rapid-running rivers, such as the
Tummel, Tweed, &c., being its favourite resorts. Every one who
has wandered by the sides of the last named, or fished any of
the upland rivulets, must be familiar with its snow-white w-aist-
coat and curious bobbing motion, — an action which strongly re-
minds one of the custom, now gradually becoming extinct but at
one time very prevalent, of little girls curtseying to strangers as
they passed through country villages — a species of servile polite-
ness which does not recommend itself to the present practical and
radical generation. When it alights, usually upon a stone or rock
that rises out of the stream, it flirts its tail and dips up and down
in rather comical style, very often accompanying this motion with
a restless turning about, so that at one moment its head faces you,
and at another its tail is presented. This practice has acquired
for it the common English name of Dipper, — not by any means an
inappropriate term, as is so often the case with the local nomen-
clature of birds. As already mentioned, it rarely ever leaves the
course of the running water ; in fact, even if chased, it can hardly
be persuaded to venture to any distance from the same, and when
pressed hard, it merely takes a higher flight overliead than usual,
only to return to the bed of tlie burn at a point where it conceives
itself safe. It is amphibious in the sense that it spends a con-
siderable portion of its existence under the watery element, and
this faculty has given rise to a very great amount of controversy,
assertion, and counter-assertion, bordering sometimes upon the
vituperative, among naturalists, some of whom maintain that it

0

lO

Transactions of the [Sess.

can walk as easily upon the bed of a river under water as it can
on dry land ; while others, again, scout the idea as nonsensical
and contrary to reason. One authority is ready to make oath that
it possesses the former power, and asserts that he has ocular
demonstration to prove it ; another argues to his own satisfaction
that this is impossible, as its specific gravity is not sufficient to
keep it at the bottom. Both disputants agree, however, upon this,
that it can dive and swim beneath the surface to perfection : in
reality, it actually flies through the water — using its wings for
that purpose precisely in the same manner as it does when skim-
ming through the atmosphere. About this latter fact there can be no
doubt, but its walking on the bed is quite another matter. It would,
be presumptuous on my part to offer an opinion upon the vexed
question, although I am bound to confess that my own ideas on the
point are strongly in favour of its inability to perform the feat.
It is just possible, nevertheless, that the exponents of the former
theory may be right to a certain extent, as its feet are well adapted
for clutching firmly, ergo it may be able to hold on for a short space
to one spot : but that it can continue to walk will require more
substantial evidence than has as yet been adduced in support of the
hypothesis. This amphibious habit renders the species an attrac-
tive one to naturalists ; but it has also developed an interest of a
totally different character in the minds of another class, whose
feelings towards it are akin to those which Baillie Nicol Jarvie
imputes to Helen Macgregor, when he remarks that her reception
of him was " on the north side o' freendly." The class referred to
are Salmon and Trout preservers, who used to — and do even yet to
a considerable extent — wage a war of extermination against this
harmless creature. The reason for this hostility is by no means
satisfactory, especially in this, as we are accustomed to consider,
enlightened age.

The bird is accused of devouring immense quantities of Salmon
and Trout ova, and, as a natural consequence, of destroying the
breed of these fish. Now it is notorious that many of its maligners
have never taken the trouble to investigate for themselves the
truth of this accusation, but are content to go on kilHng the
species simply because the belief that it is detrimental to fish-
culture has been taken for granted for such a length of time, that
now it almost forms part of the creed of an angler. That it may
eat ova occasionally is admitted ; but that it makes a practice of
this, or destroys large quantities, is a statement denied by our
most eminent ornithologists, many of whom have made this bird
a special study. Such authorities as Sir William Jardine, M'Gilli-
vray, Yarrell,- and in our own day Professor Newton, Thomas
Edward of Banff, and many others, have expressed themselves
more or less emphatically against this imputation ; and I venture

1885-86.] Edmbiirgh Naturalists' Field Club. 311

to think their testimony is of more value than that of lessees of
fishings, keepers, and similar fishing enthusiasts, who in too many
instances will not take the trouble to discover if the bird be guilty
or not before continuing the work of destruction. What the species
really feeds upon are fresh-water molluscs, larvae of flies, various
aquatic insects, such as beetles, &c., with an occasional small
fish or two. It has been satisfactorily proved by entomologists
that certain kinds of water-beetles are very hurtful to fish ova;
yet this bird, who feeds upon these, is slaughtered in order to
preserve what these same insects are doing their best to destroy.
If this mode' of reasoning were carried out in other spheres, it would
necessarily follow that the best plan to get rid of mice in a house
would be to kill the cat. Under these conditions, then, one may
perhaps be excused from applying the mild term " absurd " to the
policy of pisciculturists. A good deal more might be said upon this
subject ; but as time would not permit, I will merely mention a
statement made to me by a practical taxidermist of forty years'
standing, that during the whole course of his bird-stuffing career,
in which time he had dissected large numbers of Water-Ousels —
upwards of 100 — he had never on any single occasion discovered
the slightest trace of fish ova in their stomachs. This, I fancy,
you will believe to be as conclusive evidence against the random
assertions of its enemies as could possibly be obtained.

The nest of this bird is almost as curious as itself, in so far as
the extraordinary size is concerned. It measures nearly a foot in
length, and about six to eight inches in depth, by as many in thick-
ness ; is composed of moss platted strongly together, the interior
being lined with dead, dry leaves ; and instead of being open at the
top like most other nests, it is domed, and an entrance-hole is left
in the front very nearly in the centre of the mass. In fact, to use
a rather homely simile, it is uncommonly like a huge haggis with a
large hole cut in the side. This unusual structure is found in vari-
ous situations, but always close to water, under overhanging rocks
or concealed in the banks at the side of a stream, and not unusually
upon the flat iron beams that support small railway-bridges. By
Tweed-side I have found it frequently in this latter position. The
plumage is brownish-black on the upper parts, white on the breast,
and chestnut-red beneath. The female is similar to the male, but
barely so decided in the colours ; and the young, although not so
clearly marked, have sufficient of the parental plumage to prevent
their being confused with any other species. Its song is very
pretty, and, although not of long duration, is always welcome,
more particularly as it commences very early in the season, when
most birds are mute.

So far as these two species are concerned, this concludes my
remarks, which have been very imperfect and far from scientific.

312 Transactions of tJie [Sess.

This latter qualification I make no pretensions to whatever ; but
my excuse for that deficiency must be, that if an interest in Orni-
thology is to be aroused among the members of our Club, it must
be done, in the first instance, by simple description, and not by
dry details or wearisome statistics. To myself personally, it
would be a source of gratification if more of our members showed
a desire to become acquainted with bird-life. It only needs a be-
ginning to prove how fascinating the subject really is. Of all the
lower animate creatures on this earth, surely birds are the fairest
of God's handiwork ; and we need never suppose, as the ignorant
are too prone to do, that time spent upon the acquisition of know-
ledge is lost, as nothing can be more enjoyable, or more calculated
to elevate our minds above the dull and sordid cares of everyday
life, than the study of Natural History in its various branches.

XII.— NOTES ON MARINE EXCURSIONS.

[Read Feb. 19, 1886.)

I. GRANTON.

By Mr JOHN LINDSAY.

On a raw, cold day of last month — Saturday, Jan, 16 — a small but
enthusiastic band, representing the Biological section of the Club,
found their way to Granton. Our destination was a reef of rock,
not far from the shore, near Caroline Park, and covered by the
tide at high water. This reef, we had good reason to believe,
would prove a fair '' hunting-ground " for marine specimens, and
in this^hope we were not disappointed. It must be stated, however,
at the outset, that nothing which could possibly be called " rare "
was found ; and the design of the following brief remarks is simply
to record the varied forms of life that may be observed in such a
situation, and in a comparatively small compass, both of time and
space ; and to furnish, perhaps, some guidance to others who may
follow in the same work.

The Mollusca may first be noted. We gathered the ten follow-
ing species and varieties — viz., the Common Limpet [Patella
vulgata), the Tortoise-shell Limpet [AcmcBa testudinalis), the Com-
mon Whelk [Buccinum undatum), the Common Periwinkles [Lit-
torina Uttorea and L. riidls), the Dog Whelk (Purpura lajMllus), the
Spindle-Shell or '' Buckie" (Fusus antiquus), the Grey Top-Shell
(Trochus cinereus), the Common Scallop-Sheil (Pecten operadaris),
and the Edible Mussel [Mytilus edidis). The popular names of com-

1885-86.] Edinburgh Natnralists Field Club. 313

mon shells are in as great a state of confusion as those of familiar
wild plants, therefore the use of the scientific names becomes a
necessity when precision is desired. The palates of a few of the
univalve Molluscs were extracted in the Club-room the same even-
ing, and several specimens are now shown under the microscope
by polarised light. The acephalous or headless Molluscs, corre-
sponding generally to the bivalves, have, of course, no dental ap-
paratus. The palate of the Limpet is very easily extracted, all
that is necessary being to make an incision at the head in order
to get a hold of the end of the " lingual ribbon," when a gentle
pull brings it away gradually in a long roll. Some specimens
of the palate of the Limpet were got in this manner nearly three
inches in length. When it is noted that the lingual ribbon of
the Limpet has 12 rows of teeth, with 160 teeth in each row, or
1920 in all, it will be evident that the work done by this chain-
saw-like rasping organ must be considerable. The palates of the
Whelk and " Buckie " are rather difficult subjects to manipulate,
being enclosed in a fleshy tube : this tube must first be extracted,
and the integuments of which it is composed carefully cut through
with a sharp instrument, before the lingual ribbon can be got at.

The Crustaceans noticed were tiny specimens of the Common
Shore-Crab [Carcinus ???CBMas),the Hermit Crab (^Pagurus BernKardus),
and the KcoYTi-&he\V\[Balanus balanoides). The Hermit-Crab, as is
well known, never forms a shell for itself, but appropriates that of
some Mollusc, changing from one to another to suit the requirements
of its own growth, and often ending with the Whelk. Whether it
simply appropriates an empty habitation, or coolly makes a meal of
the rightful tenant, does not seem to be very clear, although the
latter is the more likely method of " taking possession." The Acorn-
shells were formerly classed amongst the Molluscs, but now rank
with the Barnacles in the class Crustacea, sub-class Cirripedia, —
differing from the latter, however, in being sessile, while the Bar-
nacles are stalked. The larva of the Acorn-shell, like that, e.g.,
of the Sponges, is free-swimming ; but the adult undergoes a
process of degradation, fixing itself by the head to rocks or other
foreign bodies, and then elaborating a calcareous segmented shell,
capable of opening at the top for the protrusion of the so-called
" hand " — though " foot " would be an equally descriptive term.
This foot bears generally six pairs of jointed limbs studded with
bristles, and giving the name Cirripedia, or " curl-feet," to the sub-
class. The function of the foot is to set up currents in the water
by agitating it : food is thus brought within reach, then laid hold
of, and conveyed to the interior. A specimen of this interesting-
organ, by which, as Professor Huxley says, the animal *' kicks its
food into its mouth," is shown under the microscope. Eocks,
stones, and Molluscs — principally Limpets — were covered by these

314 Transactions of tJie [Sess.

familiar Acorn-shells, their crusted surfaces suggesting some vio-
lent eruptive disorder.^

The only Sponge noticed was Halichondria silicea, and of this a
few good specimens were got. A transverse section through one of
the exhalant apertures, with the rod-shaped spicules in situ, is shown
under the microscope. The Common Sea- Anemone or "Beadlet"
(Actinia mesemhryanthemum) was seen in the rock-pools. Of the
Annelids, there were observed Serpula vermicularis and Spirorbis
communis. The calcareous tube of the Serpula is fixed by the
apex to rocks or stones, while that of Spirorbis adheres by the
side to Fuci and oxher Seaweeds. Spirorbis was common : minute
forms of the tube make a very good slide for the microscope,
mounted as an opaque object. The Hydroids found were Obelia
geniculata and Sertularia pumila ; while the representatives of the
Polyzoa were Flustra foliacea and Membranipora membranacea.
These Zoophytes are familiar to most sea-side visitors, and are well
worth examination, especially in the living state. The Polyzoa are
a distinct advance on the Hydroida, inasmuch as they possess a
nervous system, which is wholly wanting in the latter. Obelia
geniculata is shown under the microscope by Mr Allan, with the
polypes in their cells or polypidoms. In order to procure this
object, the Zoophyte must be got in the living condition, and put
into a shallow vessel with sea-water. On pouring in a few drops of
spirit, the Polypes may be seen, by the aid of a hand-magnifier, in
a very active, not to say hilarious condition ; then suddenly com-
ing to a dead stop — killed off by alcoholic excess ! In the early
days of science these colonies of living beings, as well as Sertulari-
ans. Sea- Anemones, and similar forms, were classed amongst plants.
A square inch of Flustra foliacea, with its cells on both upper and
under surfaces, has been calculated to contain 1800 cells in all,
housing as many zooids. The specimens found on the beach
are always empty, and living forms must be dredged for. The
only two Star-fishes noticed were the common "Five-fingers"
{Asterias rubens) and the Sun-star (Solaster papposa).

The Seaweeds fall now to be shortly mentioned. Of Fuci, the
four common forms were observed, all within a few yards — viz.,
the Channelled Wrack [Fucus canaliculatus), the Knobbed Wrack
[F. nodosus), the Bladder Wrack [F. vesiculosus), and the Saw-shaped
Wrack [F. serratus). There were found, besides, the following :
Cladophora rupestris, Porphyra vulgaris, Ulva latissima and U.
linza, Halidrys siliquosa (in large quantities), Laminaria digitata,
Callithamnion polyspermum, Ceramium rubrum and C, acantho-

1 An interesting note on the life-history of the Acorn-shell, with an illus-
tration, will be found in the ' Journal of Microscopy and Natural Science '
for January 1886 — art. " Half-an-hour at the Microscope with Mr Tuflfen West,
F.L.S., F.R.M.S., &c."

1885-86.] Edinburgh Naturalists Field Club. 315

notum, Corallina officinalis (growing abundantly in rock-pools — a
beautiful object), Polysiplionia nigrescens and P. fastigiata. The
larger Seaweeds, as Fucus and Laminaria, will always repay inves-
tigation, for attached to them are frequently found various forms
of Zoophytes and minute Mollusca, as well as epiphytic Algas ;
while under their heavy drapery many of the finer Seaweeds love
to luxuriate. On the sides of pools, and overhung by these larger
forms, there were found numerous patches of microscopic Algaj, bear-
ing Diatoms in great abundance. The tufts gathered, when exam-
ined under the microscope, were found to be mostly Polysiplionia
nigrescens and Ceramium rubrum, covered with such Diatoms as
Schizonema Grevillei and Synedra gracilis. Specimens of these
are shown under the microscope.

We had now been occupied for about two hours in our investiga-
tions, and had we waited a little longer, the ebbing tide would
have permitted an examination of the rock-pools on the seaward
portion of the reef, where other treasures would doubtless have
been found. But snow coming on, and darkness beginning to fall,
we turned our faces homeward, carrying away sufficient material
for several instructive " evenings at home with the microscope."

II. JOPPA.
By Mr JOHN ALLAN.

A contingent of the Club visited Joppa rocks on the afternoon of
Saturday, 30th January, and met with very much the same " finds "
as on the Granton excursion. The only shell-fish observed, in addi-
tion to those got at Granton, were Cliiton marginatus and Pholas
dactylus. The latter burrows so deeply in the rock, that only the
mouth of the circular hole it makes can be seen, and any attempt
to dig it out simply results in its breaking to pieces. It has long-
been a mystery how so frail an animal can bore through rock and
other hard substances, just as it is equally puzzling how a soft
Sponge (Clione celata) can drill holes through Oysters and other
thick shells.^ Empty shells of Cockle, Pecten, Solen, and Turri-

1 The Pholas is not the only boring Mollusc, although it is the one regarding
which, probably, most has been written. Various theories have been put
forward to account for its boring powei-s, — such as the elaboration of an acid
secretion, and the presence of flinty spicules on the ' ' foot. " But the true
moilus operandi has in all likelihood been now discovered, from keepino- speci-
mens in marine aquaria and watching them at work. By means of the fleshy
" foot," the extremely hard shell is pulled constantly backwards and forwards,
thus acting as a rasp or file ; while the siphon-tube at the opposite extremity
ejects a continuous stream of water, which keeps the " tunnel" that is being
hollowed out always damp, and at the same time carries away the abraded
material.

3i6 Transactions of the [Sess.

tella were picked up. Several masses of Sponge [Halichondria)
were found growing in rock-pools, one of them very large, measur-
ing fully six inches by four inches, and two inches high. The egg-
capsules of both the Common Whelk and the Dog Whelk were
observed to be very abundant. A white membranous substance,
not known to any of those present, was found attached to a rock at
the bottom of a pool. It was shaped like an inverted bell-glass,
and measured not quite two inches in circumference, and three-
fourths of an inch deep ; it was very elastic in consistence. One
or two other specimens were afterwards observed. On being ex-
amined under the microscope, it was found to contain a mass of
eggs, and an attempt is being made to hatch these. I may here
incidentally remark that I made another visit to the same pools a
few days ago, and found one or two sirnilar patches of eggs, and
sitting close beside one patch, apparently- engaged in depositing
the eggs, I found the animal which I now exhibit — viz., a Doris,
one of the Nudibranchiata. Several specimens of the Sand-star
[Ophiura texturata) were found, and also one of the Polyzoa (Mem-
hranipora jnlosa), which we did not observe at Granton.

No attention was given to Alga3 on this occasion, but it may be
incidentally mentioned that Joppa is one of the best stations for
Algge on the Firth of Forth. Mr Gr. W. Traill, Joppa, who is an
authority on this subject, records over 120 different Seaweeds as
having been found growing on the rocks or in the pools there.
Mr Traill has spent several years on this study, has carefully
noted the various periods of the year at which Algae are to be
found in fruit, and has in several other ways added to our know-
ledge on this subject.

It may be worth while to say a few words as to the habitats of
some of the shell-fish we gathered. The Mussel and the Whelk are
to be found adhering to rocks between tide-marks — the former
anchored firmly to the rock by silken threads of great strength,
spun by means of its foot, and affixed to the rock and to its neigli-
bour Mussels. The Periwinkle is to be found either on rocks or
browsing on AlgEe, such as Fucus ; while the Pearly-top is got
generally on the under side of the larger stones, in pools where the
water always remains. In searching for them, therefore, as well as
for many other mai'ine objects, no stone should be left unturned !
The Chiton is generally, found adhering to rocks near low-water
mark, and when taken from its resting-place, rolls itself up after
the manner of a hedgehog. The Limpet was got of all sizes, and
adhering to rocks, some literally covered with Acorn-shells ; while
the Tortoise-shell Limpet, of which we secured only a few small
specimens, was got on the perpendicular sides of pools near low-
water mark.

Marine botany and zoolog}", I Avould remark in conclusion, have

1885-86.] Edinburgh Naturalists' Field Club. 317

not hitherto received that attention from the Club which these
subjects deserve. Possessing-, as we do, a stretch of coast-line at
many points not far distant from the city, a series of short excur-
sions at various intervals throughout the year might be arranged,
in order to investigate the countless forms of life to be found at
the sea-shore.

XIII.— NATURAL ENDO-SKELETON AND EXO-SKELETON OF
AMERICAN BULL-FROG (CERATOPHRYS CORNUTA).

Prepared and Exhibited by

Mr DONALD KNIC4HT.

{Feb. 19, 1886.)

The skeleton which forms the hard internal part of the Frog is
composed jDartly of cartilage and partly of bone. Cartilage is
formed in the embryo, and is absorbed by the blood-vessels. It
presents under the microscope a clear, slightly granular substance,
with nucleated corpuscles imbedded in it, — in order of develop-
ment, at first represented by the notochord alone. Bone consists
of a dense, fibrillous, intercellular substance or matrix, in which are
imbedded cells that lie in cavities connected with one another by
fine branching canals. Bones developed independently of cartil-
age are very rare. In the skull the original cartilage is not so
completely replaced by bone as in the vertebral column, large
tracts of unossified cartilage persisting in the adult. Besides the
cartilage bones, the skull is strengthened by numerous membrane
bones. The vertebral . cokimn is the first part of the skeleton
which is developed in the embryo, then the head and limbs. All
amphibia possess a fenestra ovalis, with a cartilaginous or osseous
columelliform stapes, the expanded proximal end of which is fixed
to the membrane of the fenestra. In many batrachia, if not in all,
there is a fenestra rotunda, though the presence of a distinct cochlea
has not been ascertained. The nerve of hearing arises from the
side of the medulla, immediately behind and close to the root of
the facial nerve. It enters the audit capsule, and ends in the in-
ternal ear.

I prepared a considerable number of skeletons of the common
American Bull-frog a few years ago, but found no exo-skeleton
plates present. The Ceratophrys cornuta is the only Bull-frog on
which I have found these plates ; and, so far as known to me, they

VOL. I. y

3i8 Transactions of the [Sess.

have never before been described. The whole dorsal surface of the
body, in the natural skeleton now exhibited, is covered with dis-
tinct, ossified, exo-skeleton plates, eleven in number, the two outer
ones measuring fully f in. across and gV in. thick. This Frog is
evidently an aged specimen, as all the bones of the skull are
anchylosed or fused together ; and they are also rough and pitted,
like the reptilian, excepting the premaxilte and mandibles, which
are smooth and free. The skin was so very thin on the dorsal
surface of the body, that I could only get it parted from the bony
plates by diligent scraping. The plates are attached to each other
by sutures, and are very apt to be regarded by a casual observer
merely as a thickened and hardened portion of the skin. The
inner plates resemble very much in shape the bones of the carapace
of the Chelonia. They are of a reptilian type, rough and pitted on
the upper surface, not unlike the skull-bones of the Crocodiles, and
are quite flat and smooth on the under surface, forming a protec-
tion to the soft parts of the animal. Further, they are not attached
to any of the vertebra, as in Ceratophrys dorsata, but are quite
free, and cover the whole back. In the various museums of Eng-
land, Scotland, and Ireland that I have visited, I have never seen
a specimen of the Frog skeleton showing such exo-skeleton plates.
Bhron, the eminent German scientist, has a skeleton figured in his
valuable work which exactly corresponds with this one, but shows
no exo-skeleton plates.

XIV.— ABNORMAL GROWTHS ON ROOT OF TAXODIUM

DISTIGHUM.

By Mr HUGH FRASER.

{March 19, 1886.)

Mr Hugh Fraser, manager, Leith Walk Nurseries, exhibited a
specimen of the protuberances on the root of Taxodium dis-
tichum — the deciduous Cypress of North America — which he had
obtained from a tree of about 30 feet high, growing on the margin of
a pond in Surrey. It was one of some thirty or forty from the same
tree, and measured 16 inches in height, with a breadth of 8 inches,
as sawn from the surface of the turf In the course of a few
remarks, Mr Fraser stated that this tree is found native in Florida
and on the Delaware and Mississippi — attaining heights of from
100 feet to 150 feet when growing on swampy ground. It is, par-
ticularly in the southern districts of Britain, perfectly hardy; but

1885-86.] Edinburgh Naturalists Field Club. 319

though introduced more than 200 years ago, it is yet comparatively
little known. Few of our deciduous trees, however, were more
graceful in foliage, which was suggestive of the most delicate
Ferns ; or in general appearance, its spring and summer greenery
being always most attractive. The protuberances on the root, when
growing in its native marshes, are commonly from Ij to 2 feet
high, and sometimes from 4 feet to 5 feet in thickness. Michaux
says that " no cause can be assigned for their existence ; they are
peculiar to the deciduous Cypress, and begin to appear when it is
only 20 to 25 feet liigh." Another writer has suggested that the
absorption of air is the probable purpose for which the knobs pro-
trude above the water. According to Loudon, these protuberances
are made use of by the Indians for bee-hives. The wood is uni-
versally employed throughout the United States for the best kind
of shingle ; and in Louisiana it is also used for almost every other
purpose to which timber is applied.

MEETINGS OF MICROSCOPIC SECTION.

During the past session six meetings in connection with the work
of the Microscopic Section were held, under the presidency of Dr
J. M. Macfarlane. The session was inaugurated with an address
by the President, delivered on Nov. 6, 1885, as follows : —

ON THE PROGRESS OF MICROSCOPICAL RESEARCH.

When requested by the Council of the Society to open its
Microscopic Section with an Address, I consented with consider-
able trepidation. Composed, as our Club is, of members most of
whom are not scientific specialists, I felt that to deal with a purely
scientific subject might promote its advancement less than if I
briefly reviewed the grand progressive lines of microscopic re-
search. I propose therefore to trace shortly, and, I fear, very
imperfectly, the history of the evolution of our present micro-
scopic organisation.

In the biological world the oldest plants and animals appear
to have been extremely simple in structure, and the life func-
tions exhibited by them w^ere correspondingly simple. But in
time higher forms appeared, which exhibited in their structural or
mechanical details more complexity of organisation, and this was
linked with a similar advance in function. At length we reach, in
comparatively recent time, the highest types of mechanical arrange-
ment in the richly coloured flowering-plant of the. vegetable world.

320 • Transactions of the [Sess.

and the equally beautiful bird amongst animals, these exhibiting
at the same time a minute intricacy of functional action which
often baffles the most ardent physiologist to understand. In the
organic world, therefore, we have a gradual advance in structural or
mechanical details, coupled with a similar advance in the effects or
results produced by the mechanism.

Exactly the same principle applies in the evolution of micro-
scopic research. On the one hand are the mechanical arrangements
which we call microscopes, and on the other these have, as their
desired result or function, the unfolding to us of the secrets locked
up in the living things around us. A single lens of glass fitted
into a handle was all that the fathers of microscopy had, and
we need not wonder, therefore, that the results achieved by them
were comparatively simple. But as, according to the principles of
organic evolution, the necessity for providing a food-supply, for
wai-ding off the attack of enemies, and for becoming better fitted
to their surroundings, all conspired to raise animals in the scale of
existence ; so, as new wonders were presented to the eye of the
early microscopists, the determination possessed them to perfect
their instruments, and become yet more familiar with the hidden
things around, — in other words, to obtain a knowledge of, and suit
themselves to, their environment.

Let us see then how, side by side, gradual but sure progress has
been made in the perfection of instruments of research, and our
knowledge of the organisms to which these instruments are ap-
plied. In doing so, we must equally take account of the botan-
ical and zoological records, for they have expanded in nearly the
same ratio. We must bear in mind also, that till two centuries
ago, naturalists were content (and perhaps were serving their day
well) when they looked only at external naked-eye appearances —
noting shape, colour, size, and outside structural details, for it
made them thoroughly familiar with the stones, so to speak, with
the aid of which the future edifice of exact science was to be built.

A mere surface knowledge, however, did not long suffice, for some
of the more speculative spirits began to inquire, " What is the size
of the smallest living thing?" — while others asked, "What is the
explanation of all that we find beneath the surface in those plants
and animals that we can see ?" Questions such as these brought to
the front two worthy pioneers — Eobert Hooke in our own country,
and Leeuwenhoek in Holland. The former pu.blished in 1665 an
account of what he had been able to discover by aid of a simple
mao-nifying- glass, of a water-microscope, and a very primitive
compound microscope, his work being entitled ' Micrographia.'
Looking over it, a student of the present day scarcely knows
whether to admire most the difficulties he had to overcome or
the wonderful results he achieved. Dedicated to King Charles II.,

1885-86.] Edinburgh Naturalists' Field Club. 321

the author says, " I do here most humbly lay this small present at
your Majesty's royal feet. And though it comes accompanied with
two disadvantages, the meanness of the author and of the subject,
yet in both I am encouraged by the greatness of your mercy and
your knowledge. By the one I am taught tliat you can forgive
the most presumptuous of offenders, and by the otber that yon will
not esteem the least work of Nature or Art unworthy your obser-
' vation." Such were the relations between Robert Hooke, F.R.S.,
and King Charles II. Looking back 200 years, I think we may
now fairly regard Robert Hooke as king and Charles as subject, if
the true advancement of our race is considered.

In treating of his subject, this father of microscopy proceeds in a
most methodical way from the known to the unknown. He first de-
scribes and figures carefully a needle-point, magnified about thirty
times ; and after drawing some sage conclusions, he proceeds to
expatiate on "the sharp edge of a razor" — his conclusion about it
being, " This edge and piece of a razor, if it had been really such
as it appeared through the microscope, would scarcely have served
to cleave wood, much less to have cut off the hair of beards, unless
it were after the manner that Lucian merrily relates Charon to
have made use of, when, with a carpenter's axe, he chopped off the
beard of a sage philosopher, whose gravity he very cautiously
feared would endanger the oversetting of his wherry." He next
examined fine lawn, tabby, and watered silks — the last of which, our
lady members may be interested to know, struck him as showing
" the great wwaccurateness of artificial works."

Glass drops, fantastical colours, metalline colours, fungus moulds,
moss, seaweed, the stinging - point of a nettle, and many other
common and original objects, were reviewed in succession, as lead-
ing gradually Tip to the most interesting and complex of all — entire
animals of minute size, or parts of them. Human hair, scales of
sole, sting of bee, peacock's feathers, head of fly, teeth of snail,
eggs of silkworm, spiders, &c., succeed each other with a pano-
ramic effect, alike of description and figure.

The chapter he devotes to a certain little insect well known to
most by repute, if not by experience, as sometimes detracting from
man's crown of glory, is so unique that you will pardon my quot-
ing at length. The description, I think, is scientifically correct.
" This," he says, " is a creature so officious that 'twill be known
to every one at one time or other — so busie and so impudent that
it will be intruding itself in every one's company, and so proud and
aspiring withal that it fears not to trample on the best, and affects
nothing so much as a crown ; feeds and lives very high, and that
makes it so saucy as to pull any one by the ears that comes in its
way, and will never be quiet till it has drawn blood. It is troubled
at nothing so much as at a man that scratches his head, as know-

322 Transactions of the [Sess."

ing that man is plotting and contriving some mischief against it,
and that makes it oftentimes skulk into some meaner and lower
place, and run behind a man's back, though it go very much against
the hair ; which ill conditions of it having made it better known
than trusted, would exempt me from making any further descrip-
tion of it, did not my faithful Mercury, my microscope, bring me
other information of it. For this has discovered to me, by means
of a very bright light cast on it, that it is a creature of a very odd
shape : it has a head shaped like that exprest in 35 Scheme marked
with A [referring to the accompanying plate], which seems almost
conical, but is a little flattened on the upper and under sides, at
the biggest part of w^hich, on either side behind the head (as it
were, being the place where other creatures' ears stand), are placed
its two black shining goggle-eyes, h h, looking backwards, and
fenced round with several small cilia or hairs that incompass it, so
that it seems this creature has no very good foresight. It does not
seem to have any eyelids, and therefore perhaps its eyes were so
placed that it might the better cleanse them with its fore-legs — and
perhaps this may be the reason why they so much avoid and run
from the light behind them ; for being made to live in the shady
and dark recesses of the hair, and thence probably their eye having
a great aperture, the open and clear light, especially that of the
sun, must needs very much offend them. To secure these eyes
from receiving any injury from the hairs through which it passes,
it has two horns that grow before it, in the place where one would
have thought the eyes should be." Our immortal national bard
must surely have read " Hooke " before giving the finishing touches
to his well-known poem.

Proceeding to an allied group, our philosopher observes : " The
least of reptiles I have hitherto met with is a mite, — a creature
whereof there are some so very small that the sharpest sight,
uiiassisted with glasses, is not able to discern them, though, being
white of themselves, they move on a black and smooth surface ;
and the eggs out of which these creatures seem to be hatched
are yet smaller, those being usually not above a four- or five-
hundredth part of a well-grown mite, and those well-grown mites
not much above one-hundredth of an inch in thickness ; so that,
according to this reckoning, there may be no less than a million
of well-grown mites contained in a cubic inch, and five hundred
times as many eggs."

To the microscopic sages of the present day, many of Hooke's
observations may look like the vagaries of a weakling ; but the
seeds of truth sown by him in weakness are now grown into
trees of knowledge whose fruit satisfies our intellect, enhances our
happiness,- and increases our comforts. Let us not despise the
day of small things.

1885-86.] Edinburgh Naturalists'' Field Club. 323

Leeuwenhoek published his observations also in the ' Philosophi-
cal Transactions ' a few years after Hooke. He devoted a separate
microscope to every object he examined, so that he w^as the happy
possessor of two or three hundred instruments.

The figures who next stand forth conspicuously are Dr Nehemiah
Grew, — like Hooke, a Fellow of the Royal Society, — and Marcelli
Malpighi, Professor at Bonn, Advancing and improving on the
work of their predecessors, they made an enormous addition to our
store of permanent scientific truth. Grew, who published in 1682,
devoted special attention to the minute anatomy and physiology of
plants. I am glad to be able, through the kindness of Professor
Dickson, to exhibit the original publication ; for one is greatly
struck not only with the accurate and advanced views he pro-
pounds, but with the crisp beauty and correctness of his micro-
scopic drawings, specially those of stems and roots. The secret
of his success is discoverable in the closing words of an early
chapter : " What we obtain of Nature we must not do it by com-
manding but by courting of her."

Malpighi's work, issued in 1687, can only doubtfully be called
parvus liber, but it certainly is magnum opus, for taking up
botanical, medical, and anatomical studies, it discusses these in a
most original and accurate manner. Well may we term him
" the Father of animal physiology." Enthusiastic workers such
as these succeeding each other, and not only inheriting but add-
ing to the wealth left by their predecessors, soon called forth,
both in this country and abroad, others who devoted their time to
improving the microscope, or enlarging our field of knowledge by
aid of it. To the latter class belongs one who probably more than
any other excited a strong popular interest in minute living things.
M. Trembley of Geneva gave to the world, about 1740, the result
of his studies on the common fresh- water Hydra; and if the ac-
count of the discoveries and experiments on Ants of his illustrious
fellow-townsman, Huber, published about fifty years after, were
looked on as the ravings of one insane, even more incredible were
those of Trembley regarded. That a true animal could be turned
outside in and yet arrange its digestive functions to suit the altered
conditions ; that it could be cut either lengthways from head to
foot or transversely, and each half develop as a new Hydra ; nay,
that it might be cut into small pieces, and yet each grow into an
adult, — seemed so opposed to all the canons of animal life, that we
scarcely wonder at the incredulity with which the announcement
was received. It whetted, however, most powerfully the desire
for further discovery, and resulted in our countryman Ellis showing
that all the Corallines, so-called, were only colonies of such animals.
Previous to and about this time, also, great improvements were
effected in the construction of the microscope, resulting in new

324 Trmisactions of the [Sess.

and separate lines of inquiry being pursued, so that if we again
borrow an illustration from biology, — just as plants or animals
may, when looked at as a whole, be likened to a tree having a
common root in the soil, and a common trunk rising into the air from
which many specialised branches are given off, so the Hookes,
Leeuwenhoeks, and Malpighis may be venerated as the great
trunks from whom many have, branched off, each to pursue his
special investigations. How numerous now these branches have
become !

From the year 1800 onwards, many illustrious names cluster
round our instrument as helping to perfect it. Chief among these
may be noted WoUaston, Frauenhofer, Biot, Amici, Chevalier,
Brewster, Airy, Ross, Lister, and Coddington. But the discoveries
made within the same period have been, I may say, unexampled in
the history of any science. Muller, Ehrenberg (whose ' Infusoria '
will ever be a landmark in microscopy), Vaucher, Brown, and Von
Mohl, have laid succeeding generations under a permanent debt of
gratitude ; but with the appearance, in 1837, of Schleiden's classic
paper on cell-structure, may be said to have commenced the dawn
of Botany as a science. When he enunciated the law that all
plants are composed of one or more little vesicles or cells, of
definite structure and history, and that every cell springs from a
pre-existing cell, a broad and solid basis was laid for a mighty
superstructure of scientific histology. Since his day botanists
have been largely concerned in developing and amplifying his
generalisations.

Considering the greater difficulty in examining animal tissues,
it need scarcely be wondered that several years elapsed ere
Schwann propounded for the animal kingdom a law identical with
that of Schleiden's for the vegetable. And here again the great
mass of investigation of recent times is simply an explication of
the arrangement, work, nature, and history of animal cells in health
and disease. Edinburgh can hold it as a sacred tradition that the
man of her own intellectual upbringing, the late Professor Goodsir,
first jDroved clearly that all disease is due to alterations in the
normal condition of cell life.

We now ask. What part did societies and individuals play in the
advancement of our favourite work? If we reply that little inter-
est was shown outside the circle of pure science, it must be borne
in mind that the bulk of mankind require strong and convincing
proofs of the value or charm of any study, before they incline to
patronise and cultivate it. Has the day come when such proofs
are forthcoming, and the value of the study is recognised ? I take
it that this meeting to-night shows that we are all animated with
the idea of stimulating others by our sympathy, or of helping each
other practically in all that pertains to the microscope. We have

1885-86.] Edinburgh Naturalists' Field Club. 325

come to recognise the beauty and interest and instruction — nay,
even the utility — there is in the study of little things. I have
often thought that the most appropriate epitaph on the tomb of
Charles Darwin would be, " He showed the power of little things."
Let this motto be the watchword of each of iis ; and though we
may not all be able to devote hours to patient study in the company
of our " Mercury," yet we may do much by interesting those around
us. Friend may encourage friend, parents -may direct their chil-
dren, teachers their pupils. The cry is raised at the present time,
and justly too, that in our system of education no provision is made
for teaching the young to use their hands neatly and well. Now,
I think it may be accepted as a general axiom that the man or
woman who can use well the hands, will not be lacking in qualities
of the head. I know of no teaching which would so thoroughly
train our youth to cultivate habits of neat-handedness, observation,
reflection, and expression, as a course of practical microscopic study.
If for our young ladies pianos are provided at a cost of from twenty to
sixty guineas, to cultivate a minor part of their nature, surely for
them, and for boys also, microscopes of two or three guineas in value
could be got. I do not consider that I am too sanguine when I
expect that within the next twenty years a complete course of the
nature indicated will be provided in our schools. No work so well
combines manual and mental ti-aining, capable of being carried out
in limited space. It will bring our youth also face to face with
the beauties and deep things of Nature — a pleasure which has too
long been denied them by the bigotry and prejudice of hide-bound
dominies and their patrons.

And now let me say a few words on the past success, present
aims, and future prospects of our own Society. First, I may be
allowed to congratulate those members who were the originators
of our microscopic department. Most of them are quiet workers,
but I trust that equal success may attend the labours of all quiet
workers. We are now entering on the third series of meetings ;
the programme, as partially drafted out, promises to be even more
attractive and instructive than those of the past ; new members are
joining us, and new departures are being made to interest and help
those already with us. Chief amongst these, I may note the forma-
tion of a Slide-cabinet, the contents of which will be given out at
stated periods for home examination. Already a considerable col-
lection of slides has been made, and further donations are re-
quested from all. I hope that by tlie close of the session the
Society may boast the possession of a large series of preparations.

Well, in order that such valuable jDOSsessions may be properly
accommodated, it is absolutely necessary that we should have " a
local habitation " as well as " a name." I am greatly pleased to
announce that in this building such has been got ; and it is proposed

0

26 Transactions of the [Sess.

that all who care may come together of an evening, or at any-
other time, and give mutual help in the examination and perma-
nent preservation of special objects. With such advantages and
opportunities in the immediate future, we may surely expect that
our prosperity and influence will enormously increase.

[The Chairman then indicated to the members lines of study and
investigation which might profitably be engaged in, and closed by
inviting them to work vigorously together for the advancement of
the Society.]

At the second meeting (Dec. 4, 1885), Mr William Forgan made
the following valuable observations on microscope objectives : — -

NOTES ON MICROSCOPE OBJECTIVES.

Every one who uses a microscope should know a good deal about
the construction of the instrument, particularly the optical part.
This can readily be learned from the ordinary text-books, but
there are many points of importance in connection with the subject
which are apt to be overlooked unless the reader's attention is
directed to them in a special way. In the following notes, space
will not permit of a great deal being said. I can only refer to a
few of the more prominent and striking facts.

Microscopes are usually divided into two classes — viz., simple
and compound. The simple microscope is that in which the
magnifying power is obtained by the use of a single lens, or, it
may be, two or three lenses placed together — the eye being placed
immediately behind them. I need not here enter upon the ques-
tion of how an object is apparently enlarged by viewing it through
a lens of short focus. That is explained fully in every book on
the microscope. I need only say that the enlargement arises from
the fact, that by means of the lens the object is viewed at a greater
angle, and hence appears larger to the eye. The simple micro-
scope remained for a long time without much improvement.
Lenses had been made of precious stones, which, having greater
density than glass, allowed the use of shallower curves with the
same magnifying power. It was only, however, when Dr Wollas-
ton invented his doublet that any advance was made. This en-
abled them to pass a larger angular pencil of light through the
objective for the simple microscope, and hence gave much clearer
and brighter definition of the object. Simple microscopes have
one quality which renders them useful where low powers only are
required — they do not reverse the image. Their use nowadays
is very limited, as the recent gigantic strides in the improvement
of the compound microscope have quite superseded them. The com-
pound microscope, previous to the invention of the principle of

1885-86.] Editiburgh Naturalists' Field Club. 327

achromatism, and for long after, made little progress. Who has
not seen a compound non-achromatic microscope as constructed
about the beginning of this century, with its huge tube and wheel
of small lenses forming a multiple " nose-piece," upon turning
which each lens in succession gave a different power ? Any one
who has examined an object with one of these glasses, and con-
trasted it with a modern objective, must be astonished that they
could even be tolerated, and yet they are bought and sold at the
present day. The invention and perfection of the achromatic
microscope objective has advanced with such leaps and bounds,
that it may well rival the steam-engine, with the rapid improvement
of which it has been almost a contemporary. The principle of
achromatism was applied successfully to the telescope just about
100 years ago. It was not, however, until the 5th April 1824
that M. Chevalier successfully made an achromatic microscope
objective, which was exhibited to the French Academy, This was,
no doubt, the date of the birth of the present compound achromatic
microscope, and worthy of remembrance. About the same time
Mr TuUey, in England, made one for Dr Goring of nine-tenths of
an inch in focal length.

There are two, and only two, special difficulties to be overcome
in the construction of objectives. I cannot give here any explana-
tion of them, but merely name them — (1) Spherical aberration ;
(2) Chromatic aberration. Both these are fully explained in the
text-books, but they are of such a nature that the very highest
skill and talent are necessary to overcome them to an extent neces-
sary to make an objective. Neither in the one case nor the other,
however, can they be, or are they ever fully eliminated. An objec-
tive is said to be aplanatic, or have a flat field, when the spherical
aberration is destroyed to a certain extent ; and it is said to be
achromatic when the image it gives is free from colour. Now when
objectives were first made, it was found by placing two or three
lenses, all of which were achromatic, above one another, that the
spherical aberration was cured or destroyed to a large extent,
and this system has been followed in their construction. The
French make a large number of lenses all of like foci, and by a
method of selection of the best, or those best matched to each,
they construct a tolerably good objective. This is said to be
"marrying" them. Objectives of this kind, however, have in-
variably a small angle, admit little light, and are not adapted
for the finest definition constantly required by the microscopist.
It is somewhat strange that although the initiatory steps in the
perfecting of the microscope are nearly all due to foreigners, it is
to our own countrymen that the real advances are mostly owing.
After it was once seen to be possible to construct achromatic
micro object-glasses, improvements went on very rapidly. The

328 Transactions of tJie [Sess.

greatest of these are undoubtedly due to Mr Joseph Jackson
Lister, the father of Sir Joseph Lister. From many experi-
ments made by him with combinations of glasses, he was able
to devise certain forms for low- and high-power glasses, which
gave very flat fields, splendid definition, and wide angles. These
formulae he communicated to ,the three principal London makers,
and I believe that glasses are still made by them upon these
formulae without alteration. Besides Mr Lister, Andrew Eoss,
who has been termed the father of the microscope, was one of the
earliest experimenters in regard to the perfecting of the instrument.
By confining his methods to these three firms, Mr. Lister certainly
insured the manufacture of good glasses, but it became, and was
for long, a real monopoly. The prices charged were very high,
and after-experience of other makers has shown that they were
excessively so. However, this enabled them to be manufactured
with a high standard of excellence and progressive improvement.
Mr Thomas Eoss made an importa,nt alteration on the lower
powers, by separating the two lenses of which these are constructed,
and placing them about an inch apart, thus flattening the field con-
siderably, and improving the definition. Andrew Eoss was, I
believe, the first to increase the usefulness of the higher powers
by widening their angle, and thus increasing their light. A steady
advance in this respect, which began about the end of the third
decade of the present century, was continued for many years, when
for a considerable time the improvements seemed to stand still.
At last. Professor Amici of Modena startled microscopists by intro-
ducing the principle of water-immersion. By a glass constructed
on this principle, he was able to resolve with ease a Diatom, the
striae of which had not been seen before — viz., Navicula rhomboides,
or, as it has been named after him, the Amician test. The prin-
ciple was rapidly adopted on the Continent, Hartnack having made
water-immersion glasses by which he was enabled to resolve a
more difiicult test — viz., Surirella gemma. As in other things in
this country, we were slow to adopt the improvement ; and it was
only after a comparison of glasses in the first French Exhibition
showed our inferiority in their manufacture, that our leading firms
began to make them. It was not so with the principle of oil-
immersion, the last and greatest of all the improvements in the
microscope. We owe this to the suggestion of an Englishman,
Mr J. W. Stephenson, but he could only get his idea carried out in
practice by a foreigner — Dr Zeiss of Jena. There is one English-
man still alive whose name I must mention in connection with
the improvements of microscope object-glasses — viz., Mr F. H-.
Wenham. He has done more, perhaps, than any other after Mr
Lister, to improve the microscope. To Mr Lister we owe, I be-
lieve, the triple back, but to Mr Wenham we owe the single

1885-86.] Edinburgh Naturalists' Field Club. 329

front — two of the most important improvements in object-glass
construction.

Our English microscopes are usually sold with a 1-inch and a ^-
inch object-glass. Where expense will not admit of a purchaser
buying more glasses, these are generally sufficient to show every-
thing which a microscopist wishes to see, except fine tests ; but
both a lower power and a higher one are desirable. When a lower
power is desired, one of 2 inches focus should be got ; and for a
higher, a water-immersion of about — of an inch focus. English
low powers by the leading makers are unrivalled. Continental
makers, as a rule, do not make good low powers — the very powers
with which the most of microscopic work is done. I, of course,
except Dr Zeiss from this statement, as his glasses, from the 1-
inch upwards, are unrivalled. Foreign microscopes generally
have a considerably higher power than a ^ of an inch glass for the
high power, and this is certainly an advantage they possess over
our English quarter. English opticians have devoted far too much
attention to the perfection of the brass work of the instrument, and
not enough to the optical part. At the present time, however, we
have one English optician whose work in the higher powers has
not yet been equalled — viz., Mr Hugh Powell.

There is no hard-and-fast rule which can be given to a purchaser
of a microscope. Experience must be one's only guide — either
one's own or that of a friend. Buying a microscope depends very
much upon what one is able to give. But there is one advice
which every one ought to follow, which is. Whatever you buy, buy
something good. If object-glasses, get one good one to begin with,
rather than two bad cheap ones. Microscopes never can be very
cheap if good ; but it is much better to build a good one up by
degrees, as it can be afforded, than to buy what after-experience
will show you is unable to give you satisfaction. At the present
day I should say that every article made by Dr Zeiss may
thoroughly be depended upon : the stand is good, the glasses are
good, and the prices are reasonable.

At the same meeting Mr Allan exhibited and described a slide
showing the fructification of Delesseria alata — an Alga which he
found on the shore between North Berwick and Tantallon Castle,
when the Club visited that place last summer. The fruit, which
was in the form of tetraspores imbedded in the margins of the
leaflets, was in fine condition ; and the slide was of interest from
the fact that this Alga is rarely found in fruit. He also exhib-
ited several other slides of Alga^ in various forms of fructification.

At the third meeting (Jan. 8, 1886), a lecture was delivered by
G. Sims Woodhead, M.D., F.R.C.P.E., on "The Role of Micro-
organisms." The lecture was of a highly interesting character,

330 , Transactions of the [Sess.

describing the nature of various kinds of bacilli, and the artificial
means adopted for propagating these organisms. Their presence
in several forms of disease, as phthisis, small-pox, splenic fever,
&c., was further demonstrated by means of the magic-lantern ; and
the treatment adopted for combating such diseases by inoculation
was explained.

At the fourth meeting (Feb. 5, 1886), Mr F. G. Pearcey, of H.M.
Challenger Commission, delivered a lecture on the Foraminifera,
which was illustrated by an extensive series of named specimens,
shown under the microscope, as well as by a large number of
beautiful diagrams. The lecturer enumerated the various classi-
fications of these minute organisms, from that of d'Orbigny, in
1826, to the recent investigations of the Challenger Commission,
which have been wrought out and tabulated by Mr H. B. Brady.
The structure and life-history of the pelagic forms were then
taken up, with their distribution in the ocean-depths, and the
ultimate reduction of the lime composing their tests to a bicar-
bonate of lime, which was carried away in solution, to be again
elaborated into varied and beautiful living forms. The forma-
tion of coral-reefs and coral-islands was then explained, especially
the part played by the Foraminifera in laying the foundation on
which coral is built up. Lastly, the importance of the fossil Foram-
inifera in the formation of the earth's crust was dwelt upon.

At the same meeting, Mr J. D. Murray made the following
communication on the tongue of the Blow-fly : —

THE TONGUE OF THE BLOW-FLY IN RELATION
TO ITS FOOD.

Most microscopists are familiar with that well-known object, the
tongue of the Blow-fly [Musca vomitoria). This fly secretes large
quantities of saliva from two glands situated one upon each side of
the thorax, and the consumption of its food has been very generally
ascribed to the solvent action of this saliva alone. Jabez Hogg, in
the fourth edition of his valuable work, ' The Microscope,' quoting
from a book called ' Episodes of Insect Life,' says that "a magnifier
will solve the difficulty, and show how the fly dissolves its rock,
Hannibal fashion, by a diluent or salivary fluid passing down
through the same pipe which returns the sugar melted into syrup."
Mr Lowne also, in his admirable monograph on the ' Anatomy and
Physiology of the Blow-fly,' states that " no solid food is taken by
the fly, as it lives entirely upon juices or such substances as can
be dissolved by its copious saliva;" while a recent writer in the
'■ Natiiralists' World ' further informs us that " when flies want to
•eat hard substances, such as sugar, they emit a drop of water,
which renders the soluble substances liquid." On the other hand.

1885-86.] Edinburgh Naturalists' Field Club. 331

as far back as 1869 Mr Suffolk ascribed the consumption of the
food to the rasping action of the pseudo-trachea^, which he figured
and described in the ' Monthly Microscopical Journal ' of that year.
His views, however, on that point, have not been generally enter-
tained ; and, with the exception of Mr Hunt and Mr Saville Kent,
nearly all other writers on the subject imply that the food is con-
sumed by means of the solvent action of the saliva alone.

Feeling interested in this question, for two or three years past
I have fed these flies under the microscope, and in the most favour-
able position for observation ; and I was finally forced to the
conclusion that the food was consumed by the joint action of the
pseudo-tracheee and teeth, the saliva merely acting as the vehicle
which received the scraped-off particles. The food was thence
sucked back into the mouth, before entering which it was probably
subjected to the further action of the teeth. I regret that I am
unable to-night to show you the living proboscis at work, as I am
certain it would have interested you more than a mere description.
The usual plan, however, has been to put the fly into the live-box
along with a piece of sugar or meat, and to watch its movements
under the microscope ; bi;t in this way, the back of the fly being
towards the observer, very little information could be gained.
Another plan was to put the fly in the live-box, with a spot of
syrup on the cover ; but in this way, again, the fly was com^jelled
to suck, and the real function of the pseudo-trachefB never came
into play. The plan I adopted was to place a drop of rice-paste
on the centre of a glass slip ; then, taking the fly by the legs, its
back was set on the drop, which extended to the margin of the
wings and held it fast, when, after kicking for a few minutes, it
became quiet, and reconciled to its temporary bondage. The fly
was next put on the stage of the microscope, and with the aid of
the bull's-eye condenser, a strong beam of light was thrown upon
the head. The fly now being on its back, with the j^roboscis
directly under the objective, the whole process of eating could be
distinctly seen, and in this position the fly would continue to eat
till one was tired of observing. Two motions could be noticed —
a rasping or filing and what I would call a biting or snapping
motion, just as if the fly was trying to obtain a firmer hold of the
sugar ; and some light is thrown on these movements by an
examination of the slide I have prepared. In the first place, we
find the lobes are channeled with numerous false trachere, usually
twenty-nine or thirty on each lobe, although this number is not
always constant. These tracheaa may be described as open tubes,
like a piece of india-rubber tubing slit lengthwise, and kept open
by semicircles or half-hoops, each semicircle terminating at one
end in the form of a fork and at the other in a blunt point, so that
throughout the greater length of the tube we have alternately a fork

332 Transactions of the [Sess,

and a blunt point, there being from 3000 to 4000 of these little forks
on the lobes of the Blow-fly. Tlie trachea spring from two curved
chitinous plates, situated at the entrance to the mouth, and for
some little distance from their attachment the rings are not bifur-
cated ; and as the rings approach the extreme margin of the lobes,
they become closed. Springing from the same chitinous plates are
the teeth, variously estimated at from forty to sixty in number,
bifurcated at their free ends. When the lobes are closed, the teeth
rest between the false tracheae ; and when the lobes are quickly
opened, the teeth spring forward, and in this way, in my opinion,
act like so many little chisels. The opening of the lobes is effected
by two powerful chitinous bands or muscles ; and I would hint that
a good rack-adjustment to the microscope is almost a necessity if
one wishes to follow closely the nimble movements of the proboscis.
I may mention that this object, as prepared by professional mount-
ers, is only useful for showing the false tracbcfe. As a rule, the
teeth are too much flattened, and the chitinous plates that support
the teeth and tracheae are broken at the base, and turned over so
that it is almost impossible to form anything like a correct idea of
the relation of the different parts.

In the tongue of the Blow-fly, then, with its false tracheee and
teeth, we find an admirable arrangement for scraping and chisel-
ing ; and that it is used for this purpose I think I can almost
prove, for under the microscope I have placed a piece of sugar,
through which a hole was eaten by the fly, while lying on the
stage of the microscope. The sugar was hard and crystallised,
and too large to be covered by the open lobes, yet it was never
allowed to fall ; and as the work of scraping and chiseling went
on, the proboscis gradually disappeared in the sugar, and finally
emerged on the other side, leaving the sugar like a ring on the
trunk of the fly ; and there are, besides, certain minute points left
by the action of the trachea3 which I think could hardly have re-
mained had the saliva been the active solvent and sole agent in
the consumjotion of the sugar. It is curious to note how observers
differ. Mr Lowne says, " No solid food is taken by the fly ; " while
Mr Suffolk, an equally accurate observer, informs us, " I have fre-
quently used raw meat as food for my flies, and have found it
eaten freely." Now we all know how partial the Blow-fly seems to
be to a tender roast or a leg of mutton ; yet when placed on the
stage of the microscope in the way described, neither coaxing nor
starving would induce the fly to touch a piece of meat. This refusal
is quite in keeping with what we know of the false tracheee, whose
sharp and pointed forks are totally unfitted to cope with a soft and
yielding substance like flesh ; and as the teeth cannot be made to
oppose one another, they are alike useless for this purpose. The fly
is content to sip the exuded juice, but cannot be said to eat meat

1885-86.] Edinburgh Naturalists' Field Club. 333

freely. It is in the larva stage, and not in the imago or perfect
form, that the fly is carnivorous. The food of the Blow-fly consists
largely of juices, and all forms of excreta and refuse which have
become dry and encrusted, and it is on the latter that the tongue
of the Blow-fly is most effective. I have said that the saliva acted
as the vehicle which conveyed the food to the mouth and sucking-
crop : it is also highly probable that it is used to cleanse the lobes
from accidental impurities, or substances disliked by the fly ; for if
a brush is dipped in oil and drawn down the fissure formed by the
closing of the lobes, the trunk will be extended, the lobes opened,
and a copious flow of saliva poured out, which quickly covers the
lobes. This continues for a few seconds, when the lobes are
closed, and the trunk resumes its usual position. The same effects
follow the application of vinegar, beer, &c. ; while no such result
follows when milk, tea, soup, or an}; thing of that nature is given.
Again, it has been thought that the false tracheae, with their
thousands of little forks, acted as a grating through which the food
of the fly was sifted ; but if the fly is put in the live-box with a
drop of thin clear jelly containing a few air-bells, and if, when
the fly is sucking, the course of these air-bells is watched, they
will be found to move towards the centre of the lobes, and finally
to disappear down what, for description's sake, may be called tlie
throat of the fly. Had the tracheas acted as a grating through
which the food of the fly was sifted, these air-bells must have
moved and disappeared in some other direction.

As I have found my own observations on these points so much
at variance with what has been written on the Blow-fly, I have
ventured to bring the subject under the notice of the Ckib, in the
hope that if any of our members are interested in insect life, they
may investigate this matter further, and probably throw some
additional light on the subject of " the tongue of the Blow-fly in
relation to its food."

At the fifth meeting (March 5, 1886), Mr W. E. Hoyle, M.A.,
M.E.C.S., F.R.S.E., gave a lecture "On the Structure of Small
Parasites, as demonstrated by Ribbon Section-cutting, with prac-
tical Illustrations." The lecture was highly appreciated by the
members, both on account of its interesting nature and of the
clever manipulation by which it was illustrated. Two different
forms of ribbon section-cutters were exhibited and described ; and
one of them was shown in operation, the organism being cut from
end to end in continuous attached sections, so as to permit of an
examination of the entire structure under the microscope.

At the sixth and concluding meeting (April 2, 1886), Mr Alex.
Frazer, M.A., optician, exhibited and described two pieces of

VOL. I. z

334 Trmisactions of the [Sess.

apparatus invented and constructed by himself — viz., a self-center-
ing turntable and an improved form of centering nosepiece. The
following are Mr Frazer's remarks on these '.-^

ON A SIMPLE FORM OF SELF-CENTERING TURNTABLE
FOR RINGING MICROSCOPIC SPECIMENS.

The construction of a turntable is so well known, that it is only
necessary to point out wherein this appliance differs from other
machines of the same sort. It is made (1) much larger and
heavier than usual, so that slides which have the specimen
mounted not in the middle of the slide wiU not project beyond
the edge of the disc when being ringed ; (2) the springs are made
with a special form of " washer," so that these (the springs) may
be turned freely in any direction ; (3) the turntable is provided
with a simple arrangement, consisting of three screws, which are
placed in such positions upon the table that slides either of one
inch or one and a half inch, if placed against them, will be ac-
curately centred ; and the screws are also so arranged that when
it is desired to use the turntable as a non-centering one, the
screws may be depressed below the surface of the table.-*-

ON AN IMPROVED FORM OF CENTERING NOSEPIECE, FOR USE
AYITH BROOKE'S DOUBLE NOSEPIECE FOR MICROSCOPE.

The use of the double or triple nosepiece has become very
general in microscopical investigation, and especially so in the
departments of pathology and physiology ; but the continued use
of this appliance has shown that it labours under two defects.
In the first place, when the nosepiece is moved in the usual way,
and one objective put in place of another, it seldom happens that
an object which was in the focus of one power is also in the focus
of the other ; and, as a consequence, the operation of refocusing
must be performed. This defect may be remedied by making the
sides of the nosepiece which hold the objectives of unequal lengths,
or by putting an adapter in either side, and so correcting for the
, difference of adjustment for focus. When this correction has been
made, the convenience of the nosepiece is much increased ; but the
error of want of concentricity may still remain — i.e.^ a particular

^ In the disc five holes are drilled : one of these is at a distance of I^ in.
from the centre ; and of the others, two are placed in a line dra-wn parallel
to a line -which joins the first-mentioned screw and the centre, and at a
distance of half an inch from it ; and the other two are placed in a line
which is three-quarters of an inch distant from the line of the first screw and
the centre, and also parallel to it.

1885-86.] Edinburgh Naturalists' Field Club. 335

point in the middle part of the field of the lower power may not also
be in the centre of the field of the higher. The appliance now de-
scribed has been designed to remedy the defects both of want of
centre and error of focus. It consists of an outer brass collar, which,
in its upper part, is provided with a screw which fits one of the
screwed ends of the nosepiece ; and in its lower part consists of a
brass collar which is provided with three mill-headed steel screws,
placed at regular intervals in its circumference. These screws
control an inner ring, into which the objective is screwed, and
which may be moved laterally by means of the steel screws.
This inner ring, and also the outer ring which supports it, may be
made of any suitable length, and by this means the accurate
adjustment for focus is effected ; while the inner ring being, as
already mentioned, capable of a lateral movement, the adjustment
for " centre " may also be accurately made.

At the same meeting, Mr J. M. Turnbull exhibited an improved
sliding nosepiece and adapter for the microscope. The following
explanation of these was made by the inventor : —

ON AN IMPROVED SLIDING NOSEPIECE AND ADAPTER
FOR THE MICROSCOPE.

In introducing this small piece of apparatus to your notice, it is
not my intention to enter into any elaborate description of what has
already been done in this direction. But you will perhaps allow
me shortly to notice one or two of the contrivances that are used
for this purpose — viz., changing the object-glasses of microscopes.
The best known and most largely used of these are the ordinary
double and triple nosepieces. These nosepieces are, no doubt,
a most useful invention, but they are not without their defects.
They are rather difficult and troublesome to make, and, unless
the work of a really first-class optician, are usually worthless.
Even in the best of them, the optical axis of the object-glass does
not coincide with that of the eyepiece and instrument. This is
an objection which is fatal to good work ; and no matter how
good the objective, if its axis is not in line with the eyepiece, it
goes a great way to detract from its usefulness. There are also
very few nosepieces which will stand the test of having an object
on the stage of the microscope centred under a low power, and,
having turned down the high power, to find the part wanted in the
middle of the field. It is more than likely that it will be some-
where on its edge, or not in the field at all. Notwithstanding
these defects, the nosepiece is without doubt the best appliance
at present in use for the purpose — the other inventions, such

33^ Trajisactions of the [Sess.

as Parkes's slipping-tube or the "turntable" adapter, being too
clumsy, and hardly worth a passing consideraton.

Changing the power in the usual way, by unscrewing the objec-
tive and screwing in another, has always seemed to me both a
tedious and needless way of working ; and I have often revolved
in my mind other means of arriving at the same result. The out-
come of these cogitations is the small piece of apparatus now ex-
hibited. It consists essentially of a small face-plate or " chuck,"
which screws into the ordinary " nose " of the microscope. On its
face this has a slide which has fitted into it another sliding-piece,
and into which the objective is screwed. As many of the other ob-
jectives as belong to the instrument are fitted with similar sliding-
pieces, which also fit into the first. Once, therefore, an objective
is fitted and centred with one of these sliding-pieces, having a suf-
ficient length of tube to bring it very nearly into focus, it can be
substituted in a moment for one of lower or higher power, as the
case may be ; and if an object has been previously centred on the
stage with a low power, it will be found accurately centred in the
field of that of the higher. I also wish to draw your attention to
the fact that all the face parts of this appliance are finished on the
lathe, which enables the optical axis of the eyepiece, instrument,
and objective to be truly maintained, and does away with the fail-
ings of the ordinary double nosepiece in this respect. Another
form of this adapter is to have two, three, or more objectives
mounted together on one of the sliding-pieces, having on each
objective a sufficient length of tube to bring it accurately into focus,
and sliding one objective on another, as may be wished, central
with the tube of the instrument — a small spring-point retaining it
in that position. It is a matter of choice, however, as to which is
the better form — whether it will be more convenient to have two
or three objectives mounted together, or to have them separate.

Having thus described the appliance, I think I may fairly claim
for it that it will change the objective of a microscope with great
rapidity, with very accurate centering, and very close approximate
focusing. Having made these claims for it, I commend the ap-
paratus to the attention of all workers with the microscope,
whose time is generally too valuable to waste on matters such
as this.-^

Throughout the session various meetings were held in the Club-
room, No. 35, at 20 George Street, for practical work. One series
embraced the study of the Optical Principles of the Microscope ;

1 [Since the above was exhibited to the Microscopic Section of the Field
Club, the Royal Scottish Society of Arts has awarded a Silver Medal to Mr
J. M. Turnbull for his invention.]

1885-86.] Edinburgh Naturalists' Field Club. 337

another, the study of Practical Biology ; while a third, on Satur-
day evenings, was devoted to Cutting, Preparing, and Mounting
Micro-objects. These meetings were sufficiently successful to
induce the members attending them to endeavour to carry them
on, on an improved basis, during another session.

The Annual Conversazione took place on 20th April, in the
Masonic Hall, and was highly successful. As on former occasions,
it partook largely of the nature of a microscopic exhibition, and
the many and varied exhibits were inspected by members and
their friends with keen interest. The pleasure of those present
was much enhanced by the performances, throughout the even-
ing, of a vocal party under the direction of Mr Wm. Murray, and
of the Albany Orchestral Society, who kindly gave their services
on the occasion. About 400 were present.

ANNUAL BUSINESS MEETING.

The Annual Business Meeting of the Club was held on the evening
of October 22, 1886, in the Hall, 20 George Street,— Mr Syming-
ton Grieve, President, in the Chair. The Secretary reported that
during the past Session there had been held in all 30 meetings,
13 of these being indoor meetings, and 17 field meetings. The
following list gives the dates and localities of these meetings,
viz. : —

Indoor Meetings : (1) Ordinary Evening Meetings, 1885 — Oct.
23, Nov. 20, Dec. 18; 1886— Jan. 22, Feb. 19, March 19. (2)
Microscoixic Meetings, 1885 — Nov. 6, Dec. 4 ; 1886 — Jan. 8, Feb. 5,
March 5, April 2. (3) Annual Conversazione — April 20, 1886.

Field Meetings, 1886 : May 1, Sea-shore, Kirkcaldy to King-
horn ; May 8, Gilmerton and Burdiehouse ; May 15, Eoslin ; May
22, Auchendinny and Firth Woods ; May 29, Aberdour ; June 2,
Banks of Canal to Slateford ; June 5, Ormiston Hall and Pencait-
land ; June 12, Balerno to Glencorse ; June 16, Sea-shore at Caro-
line Park ; June 19, West Linton ; June 26, Blair Woods, Wemyss ;
June 30, Joppa ; July 3, Philpstoun Loch; July 10, Balerno to
Glencorse ; July 14, Corstorphine Hill ; July 17, Auchencorth
Moss ; Sept. 18, Colinton and the Pentlands to Currie.

The Financial Statement showed that, including a balance from
last account, the income had been £85, lis. 5^d., and the expendi-
ture £62, 15s. Hd., thus leaving a balance in favour of the Club of
£22, 16s. 4d.

338 Transactions of the Edin. Nat. Field Club. [Sess. 1885-86.

The election of Office-bearers for Session 1886-87 was next pro-
ceeded with, when, after the vacancies were filled up, the complete
list stood as under : —

President. — Symington Grieve.

Vice- Presidents.

J. M. Macfarlane, D.Sc. 1 Alex. Frazer, M.A. | John Rattray, M.A., B.Sc.

F. G. Pearcey.

Arch. Craig, Jun.

W. I. MacAdam, F.C.S., F.I.C.

A. D. Richardson.

Council.

William Forgan.
William Bonnar.
John Henderson.
A. B. Steele.

John Allan.
J. D. Murray.
John Lindsay.
Wm. Penman.

Honorary Secretary and Treasurer.— Andrew Moffat.
Auditors.— Hugh H. Pillans; Robert Stewart, S.S.C.

During the past Session 36 names have been withdrawn from the
roll, and 43 new names have been added, making a net increase of
7, which gives a total roll of ordinary members at the close of
Session 1885-86 of 221.

The following alterations of the Laws were also agreed to,
viz. : —

" That those members of the Club who desire to take part in the
practical work of the Microscopic Section shall enrol them-
selves, and contribute the additional sum of 2s. 6d. yearly to
a separate fund to be at the disposal of the Section for the
purchase of materials, microscopical journals, or such other
purpose as the members of the Section shall resolve upon.
That this Section shall have the power of appointing its own
Secretary, who shall, in addition to discharging the usual
functions so far as regards the Section only, have the charge
of the Cabinet and the micro-material in the Club-room.
That Eule I. be deleted, and that the following Eule be put in its
place : ' That this Society, instituted for the Practical Study
of Natural History in all its branches, be called The Edin-
burgh Field Naturalists' and Microscopical Society.' "

INDEX.

Acotyledons, Monocot^yledons, and Di-
cotyledons, Morphology and Physi-
ology of, 39.

Allan, J., Notes on Marine Excursions:
Joppa, 315.

Delesseria in fruit, 329.

American Plants, some, -worth Notice.
163.

Anacharis alsinastrum, the continued
flowering of Male flowers of, 81.

Ancient Yew at Fortingall, history of
the, 220.

Animal and Vegetable Symbiosis, or
Consortism, 172.

Animals and plants, points of distinc-
tion between, 173.

Annual Business Meetings, 52, 187,
265, 337.

Antlers of Deer, the, 283.

Archibald, Stewart, List of a few Ferns
and Fern-Varieties collected chiefly
in the parish of Kilmalcolm, Ren-
frewshire, 1881-82, 78.

Arran, a Day's Ramble in the Northern
Part of, 107.

Bees and Bee-Culture, 62.

Bees, alleged destruction of, by Spotted
Flycatcher, 9.

Bees, enemies of, 72.

Bird, G., Notes of a Botanical Ramble
in the Saentis district, Switzerland,
Aug. 1881, 19.

Bird-life of Pitlochry, 87.

Blow-fly, Tongue of the, in relation to
its Food, 330.

British Mosses, Nomenclature of, 45.

Brown, G. L., Notes on Spring Vegeta-
tion as observed at Morningside, 114.

Buntings, the Commoner, 202.

Calathea zebrina. Structure and Pol-
lination of the Flower of, 150.

Carnivorous Plants, Structure and
Habits of, 151.

Cathcart Ether Freezing Microtome,
the, 112.

Churchyards, occurrence of Yews in,

224.
Coloration of Water, &c., Organic Causes

of the, 273.
Craig, A., jun., Tlie Haunts and Habits

of the Crossbill {Loxia curvirostra),

24.

Pitlochry and its Bird-life, 87.

The Sylviidfe, or Warblers, 143.

The Commoner Buntings, 202.

The Ring and Water Ousels :

their Homes and Habits, 304.
Craigie, Miss, Geological Notes on a

few of the Excursions, 115.
Crossbill, Haunts and Habits of the,

24.

Deadnettles, the various species of,

250.
Delesseria in fruit, 329.
Diatoms, on, 238.
Dionrea muscipula, or Venus's Fly-trap,

155.
Distinguished men. Mosses named

after, 47.
Drosera, or Sundew, 152.

Ferns and Fern-Varieties, List of, col-
lected in Renfrewshire, 78.

Field-Naturalists, 189.

Flora of a Country, probable eff'ects of
a change of Elevation on, 14.

Foraminifera, on the, 330.

Forgan, W., Photo-micrography, 261.

Notes on Microscope Objec-
tives, 326.

Fortingall Yew, the, 218.

Eraser, H. , Abnormal Growths on Root
of Taxodium distichum, 318.

Frazer, A., M.A., The Cathcart Ether
Freezing Microtome, 112.

Improved Forms of Ether and

Imbedding Microtomes, 260.

The Objects and Methods of

Meteorology, 299.

On an Improved Form of

Centering Nosepiece, for use with

340

Index.

Brooke's Double Nosepiece for Mi-
croscope, 334.

Frazer, A., M. A., On a Simple Form of
Self-centering Turntable for Ringing
Microscopic Specimens, 334.

Fungus Foray in Roslin Glen, the,
294.

Geological Notes on a few of the Ex-
cursions, 115.

Geology of the Pentlands, Sketch of,
234.

Gibb, P. B., M.A., Specimens of
Lizards from S. America, 107.

Gibson, R. J. Harvey, M.A., on a
specimen of the Poisonous Lizard of
Mexico (Hcloderma liorricla, Weig-
mann), 62.

Grauton, Marine Excursion to, 312.

Great Auk or Garefowl, Remains of,
58.

Grieve, S., How we spent the 30th
July 1879 in the Wilds of Kilmoni-
vaig and North- West Badenoch, 1.

Some Notes on Remains of the

Great Auk or Garefowl {Alca im-
pennis, L.) found in excavating an
ancient Shell - mound in Oronsaj',
58.

Note on the Westward Migra-

tion of the Flora and Reptilian
Fauna of the European continent,
as evidenced on the Mainland of
Scotland, &c., 166.

Who were the early Inhabit-

ants of the Shell - mound named
Caisteal - nan - Gillean, on Oronsay ?
227.

Opening Address, by, 269.

c The Red Deer (Cervus elaphus),

278.
Gyracanthus, on a specimen of, 50.

Haining, The, Selkirk, 82.
Henderson, J., Sketch of the Geology

of the Pentlands, 234.
Herbert, A. B., Note on the Habits of

the Spotted Fly-catcher {Muscicaixv

grisola), 8.
, Note on the Wall - Creeper

(TicJiodroma Phcenicoptcra), and a

few other Birds observed on a visit

to Switzerland, 30.

Bees and Bee-Culture, 62,

The Hirundines, 119.

Note on the Nest of the Eeed-

Warbler (Salicaria arundmacea),
162.

The Nuthatch {Sitta europcea),

184.

Field-Naturalists, 189.

Herbert, A. B., Note on the Appearance

of the Saury Pike in the Forth,

202.
Discovery of the Water-Spider

{Argyroneta aquatica) near Balerno,

297.
Hirundines, the, 119.
Hives, various forms of, 73.
Honey, adulteration of, 75.
Hoyle, W. ^ E., M.A., M.E.C.S.,

F.R.S.E., on the Structure of Small

Parasites, as Hlustrated by Ribbon

Section-cutting, 333.
Huber, Francis, notice of, 65.
Hymenomycetes, the, 211.

Imitative resemblances in the animal
kingdom, 34, 307; in the vegetable
kingdom, 35.

Insects, Mouth-organs of, 33.

Introductory Note, 1.

Islay, animals found in, 133.

Joppa, Marine Excursion to, 315.

Kilmonivaig and North - west Bad-
enoch, the Wilds of, 3.

King, M., Some American Plants
worth Notice, 163.

Note on the Genus Lamium,

250.

Veronicas in the Neighbour-
hood of Edinburgh, 300.

Kinnear, W. Tait, The probable effects
of a change of Elevation on the Flora
of a Country, 14.

Note on the continued Flower-
ing of the Male flowers of Anacharis
alsinastrum, 81.

Kitchen-midden on Inchkeith, Bones
and Shells taken from, 12.

Knight, D., Natural Endo-skeleton
and Exo-skeleton of American Bull-
frog [Ceratophrys cornuta), 317.

Lamium, Note on the Genus, 250.

Leaves, Impressions of, new method of
taking, 120.

Lindsay, J., Mimetic Plants, 33.

The Haining, Selkirk, with

Notices of its Antiquities, Topogra-
phy, and Natural History, 82.

Concerning Lycopods and Sela-

ginellas : Past and Present, 136.

Note on the Distribution of

Honey-Glands in Pitchered Insectiv-
orous Plants, 200.

On Yews, with special Reference

to the Fortingall Yew, 218.
Notes on Marine Excursions :

Granton, 312.

Index.

341

Lizards from S. America, Specimens of,
107.

Lundie, W., Acotyledons, Monocoty-
ledons, and Dicotyledons : their
Morphology and Physiology, 39.

Lycopods and Selaginellas, concerning,
136.

MacAdam, W. I., F.C.S., F.I.C., A
Day's Ramble in the Northern Jart
of the Island of Arran, 107.

Mounting of Microscopic Ob-
jects in Monobromide of Naphthal-
ine, 151.

Macfarlane, J. M., D.Sc, F.R.S.E.,
The Structure and Pollination of
the Flower of Calathea zebrina, 150.

The Structure and Pollination

of the Flowers of Sarracenia, 286.

The Progress of Microscopical

Research, 319.
Marine Excursions, Notes on, 312.
Mausoleum at Restalrig, curious, 57.
Meteorology, the Objects and Methods

of, 299.
Micro-organisms, the role of, 329.
Microscopic Objects, mounting of, in

Monobromide of Naphthaline, 151.
Microscopic Section, Meetings of, 186,

260, 319.
Microscopical Research, the Progress

of, 319.
Microtomes, Improved forms of Ether

and Imbedding, 260.
Mimetic Plants, 33.
Moffat, A., Note on the Mouth-organs

of Insects, 33.
Lists of the Less Common Plants

gathered at the Excursions, with

Localities, 254, 298.
Murray, J. D., The Tongue of the

Blow-fly in relation to its Food, 330.

Natural classification of Jussieu, the,

39.
Nepenthes, or Pitcher-plants, 158.
Nosepiece, On an Improved Sliding,

335.
Nosepiece, On an Improved form of

Centering, 334.
Nuthatch, the, 184.

Objectives, Notes on Microscope, 326.

Papers read during Sessions 1879-80,
1880-81, List of, 1.

Parasites, List of Animal, shown by
Mr J. Simpson, 23.

Parasites, Strncture of Small, as illus-
trated by Ribbon Section -cutting,
333.

Pearcey, Fred. G., On the Foramin-
ifera, 330.

Pentlands, Geology of the, 234.

Peregrine Falcon, Roosting of the, 44.

Pets, a Gossip about, 97.

Photo-micrography, 261.

Pinguicula, or Butterwort, 157.

Pitchered Insectivorous Plants, distri-
bution of Honey-glands in, 200.

Pitlochry and its Bird-life, 87.

Plants gathered at the Excursions,
Lists of the less Common, 254, 298.

Poisonous Lizard of Mexico, on a Speci-
men of the, 62.

Rarer Birds of Stobo, the, 288.

Rattray, J., M.A., B.Sc, F.R.S.E.,
Animal and Vegetable Symbiosis,
or Consortism, 172.

Diatoms, 238.

The Organic Causes of the Col-
oration of Water, &c., 273.

Red Deer, the, 278.

Reed-Warbler, Nest of the, 162.

Restalrig Church, 53.

Richardson, A. D., The Structure and
Habits of Carnivorous Plants, 151.

Rum, Deer-forest in the island of, 278.

Sadler, J., Obituary Notice of, 118.

Sarracenia, or "Side-saddle flower,"
159.

Sarracenia, Structure and Pollination
of the Flowers of, 286.

Saury Pike in the Forth, Appearance
of the, 202.

Selkirk, the ancient town of, 82.

Shap Spa and its Surroundings, 104.

Shell-mound of Caisteal-nan-Gillean,
on Oronsay, who were the early In-
habitants of? 227.

Simpson, J., List of Animal Parasites
shown by, 23.

Skirving, R. Scot, The Stoat or Ermine
Weasel {Mustela enninea), 130.

Spotted Flycatcher, Habits of the, 8.

Sprague, T. B., M.A., F.R.S.E., Bones
and Shells taken from a Kitchen-
midden on Inchkeith during 1881,
12.

Spring Vegetation at Morniugside,
Notes on, 114.

Siiuirrel, Note on the, 257.

Steele, A. B., The Hymenomycetes, 211.

The Fungus Foray in Roslin

Glen, 294.

Stewart, R., S.S.C. , Note on the Roost-
ing of the Peregrine Falcon on the
Spire of St Mary's Cathedral, Edin-
burgh, 44.

A Gossip about Pets, 97.

342

Index.

Stewart, R., S.S.C, Note on a Rabbit

killed by a Weasel, 127.
Stoat or Ermine Weasel, the, 130.
Stock, T. , On a Specimen of Gyracan-

thus obtained from the Carboniferous

Limestone at Burgh Lee, 50.
Swallows, butchery of, in Italy, 126.
Swarming of Bees, process of, 69.
Swimming powers of Deer, the, 281.
Switzerland, Botanical Ramble in the

Saentis district of, 19.
Switzerland, birds observed on a visit

to, 30.

Taxodium, Growths on Root of, 318.

Thomson, J., Note on the Sq[uirrel
{Sciurus europcRus), 257.

The Rarer Birds of Stobo, 288.

Tongue of the Blow-fly, the, in rela-
tion to its Food, 330.

Turnbull, J., A New Method of taking
Impressions of Leaves, 129.

Turnbull, J. M., On an Improved Slid-
ing Nosepiece and Adapter for the
Microscope, 335.

Turntable, On an Improved form of
Self-centering, 334.

Utricularia, or Bladder-wort, 161.

Veronicas in the Neighbourhood of
Edinburgh, 300.

Walcot, J., Notes on the Nomenclature
of Mosses, 45.

Shap Spa and its Surroundings,

104.

Wall-Creeper, the, 30.

Water-Spider, discovery of the, near
Balerno, 297.

Waterton, Charles, biographical notice
of, 194.

Westward Migration of Flora and Rep-
tilian Fauna of the European con-
tinent, 166.

White, Gilbert, biographical notice of,
191.

Wood, T. A. Douglas, Restalri'g Church
— a Monograph, 53.

Woodhead, G. Sims, M.D., F.R.C.P.E.,
on the role of Micro-organisms,
329.

Yews, on, with special Reference to the
FortingaU Yew, 218.

OFFICE-BEARERS, 1881-82.

^wsibtttl. — John Walcot.
5fria-|lr£sibrnt.— P. B. Gibb.

Symington Grieve.
B. H. Ho.ssACK,
J. A. Brodie.
Wm. C. S. Hunter.
Arch. Craig.
James Simpson.

Couutil.

John Lindsay.
Hugh H. Pillans.
T. B. Sprague.
John Heggie.
Chas. F. Robertson.
W. Tait Kinnear.

gtubitors. — Alexander Matheson, Robert Thomson.
lionorarg ^ttrftarg anb fensurtr. — Andrew Moffat.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 1881-82.

OrUjinal Members marked thus*.

Brown, Robert, Ph.D., F.L.S., London.

Clark, Alex., Old Aberdeen.

Edward, Thomas, Banff.

Grieve, David, F.R.S.E., Hobart House, Dalkeith.

Peach, Chas. W., A.L.S.. 30 Haddington Place.

11

List of Members, 1881-82.

^ririitarg pBrnb^rs.

Aitken, William, 13 Henderson

Row.
AUardice, C. B., 3 Polwarth Ores.
Anderson, Miss A. J. E,., 3 Howard

Place.
Anderson, Miss S. A., 3 Howard PI,
Annandale, David, 5 George Square.
Bird, George, 15 Thirlstane Road,

West.
Bogie, James, 1 Victoria Street.
Bonnar, Wm., 14 South Castle St.
Brodie, J, A., Tweed Villa, Bon-

nington.
Brown, George L., Millburn House,

Morningside.
Brown, Miss L. G., Bellsmill House.
Brown, Miss J. M., Bellsmill House.
Bryden, Mrs, 72 Great King Street.
Bryden, Miss, 72 Great King Street.
*Colvin, Rev. R. F., 7 Church Hill.
Cotton, Miss Maria, 26 Mayfield

Terrace.
Cowan, Charles Wm., Valleyfield,

Penicuik,
Craig, Archibald, jun., 16 Blacket

Place.
Craigie, Miss, 13 Polwarth Terrace.
Cunningham, Miss, 2 Haddington

Place.
Cunningham, Wm., 2 Haddington

Place.
Dobbin, Leonard, Ph.D., F,R,S.E.,

4 Cobden Road.
Drummond, A. P., 30 Broughton PI.
Duncanson, J, J. Kirk, M.D., CM.,

22 Drumsheugh Gardens,
Edmunds, Arthur, 9 Fettes Row.
Edmunds, Edmund, 9 Fettes Row.
Ewart, James, 1 Dundas Street,
Finch, Miss, 17 Upper Gray Street,
Forbes, Miss, Langside, Glasgow,
*Fraser, P, Neill, Rockville, Murray-
field,
Fraser, Alex., M.A., 7 Lothian St.
Galloway, James, St Fillans, Trinity.
Gibb, Philip B., M.A., 14 Picardy

Place.
Gloag, David, 1 Royston Terrace.
Gouthwaite, Miss, 28 Dublin Street.
Gray, Arch., 13 Inverleith Row.
Gray, Joseph T., M.A., 21 Tantallon

Place.

Grieve, Symington, Salisbury View,

Dalkeith Road.
Grieve, Miss Amelia, Salisbury View,

Dalkeith Road,
Groom, Miss, Downie Terrace, Cor-

storphine.
Groves, Charles H,, M,D., Forthland

House, Trinity.
Harrow, John, jun., Bonnington

Grove,
Hay, Alex,, Restalrig Road.
Heggie, John, 149 Warrender Park

Road,
Henderson, Miss, 6 Carlton Terrace.
Herbert, A. B., 19 Strathearn Road.
Hogg, Andrew, 33 George Street.
Hossack, B. H., Orkney,
Hunter, Wm. C. S., M.A., Dundee.
Hutchison, Robert, F.R.S.E., 29

Chester Street.
Hutchison, Mrs, 34 Manor Place.
Lines, Miss Agnes H., 4 Cobden Rd,
Jenner, Charles, F,R.S.E., Easter

Duddingston Lodge.
Kinnear, W. Tait, 5 Crichton St,
Laughton, William, Currie.
Ligertwood, George C, M.A., 4 Car-
berry Place.
Lindsay, John, 20 Balmoral Place.
Livingstone, Matthew, 108 Gilmore

Place,
Logan, Alex, W,, 32 West Maitland

Street,
Lundie, William, 4 Park Street.
Macadam, W. Ivison, 6 East Brighton

Crescent, Portobello,
Macadam, Stevenson, jun., II East

Brighton Crescent, Portobello.
M'Farlane, James, 12 Lonsdale Ter.
M'Intosh, James, 42 Queen Street,
M'Litosh, Mrs James, 42 Queen St,
M'Kean, James, 11 Sylvan Place,
Marshall, John Arch., 41 Minto St.
Marshall, Robert, Lasswade.
Marshall, William, 1 Belford Park.
Matheson, Alex., M.A., W.S., 8lA

Princes Street.
Melvin, Alex., 24 Castle Street.
Miller, Peter, 8 Bellevue Terrace,
Miller, R. K., 4 Bonnington Ter.
Milne, John K., Kevock Tower, Lass-
wade.

List of Members, 1881-82.

Ill

Milne, Mrs, Kevock Tower, Lass-
wade.

Mitchell, John L. , 6 Mansfield Place.

Moffat, Andrew, 320 Leith Walk.

Morgan, David M., M.A., 39 Lon-
don Street.

Oliver, John S., 12 Greenhill Park.

Philip, James, 5 Argyle Place.

Pillans, Hugh H., 12 Dryden Place.

Pillans, Miss, 12 Dryden Place.

Pottage, John C, 117 Prmces St.

Potts, George H., Fettes Mount,
Lasswade.

Purves, A. P., W.S., 102 George St.

Robertson, Charles F., 54 Blacket
Place.

Robertson, Rev. J. M., 60 Blacket
Place.
*Sadler, John, Royal Botanic Garden,

Shaw, John 0. , Beauly, Victoria Park,
Trinity.

Simpson, Jas., Anatomical Museum,
Park Place.
*Skirving, R. Scott, 29 Drummond
Place.

Sprague, T. B., 29 Buckingham Ter.

Steele, Miss, 16 Upper Gray Street.

Stewart, Robert, 8 Atholl Place.

Stewart, James R., 10 Salisbury Rd.

Stewart, Mrs James R., 10 Salisbury
Road.

Taylor, Andrew, 37 South Clerk St.

Taylor, William, M.D., 67 York PI.

Terras, James, 6 Shandwick Place.

Thomson, Robert, LL.B., 6 Shand-
wick Place,

Usher, Andrew, Blackford House.

Walcot, John, 50 Northumberland
Street.

Walcot, Miss, 50 Northumberland
Street.

Wardlaw, Adam, Eskgrove, Lass-
wade,

White, John, 34 Manor Place.

Wilson, James T., Restalrig House.

Wilson, Miss Mary Jane, 2 Archibald
Place.

Wilson, Miss Katie, 2 Archibald PI,

Wilson, Thomas, S.S.C, 4 Maitland
Street.

Wood, T. A. D., Viewforth, Brun-
stane Road, Joppa.

OFFICE-BEARERS, iSS^-Ss.

piTsibml. — A. B. Herbert.
yirc-4,hcsibcuf. — P. B. Gibb, M.A.

Council.

Arch. CraiCx.

James Simpson.

John Lindsay.

Hugh H. Pillans.

T. B. Sprague, M.A., F.R.S.E.

John Heggie.

Chas. F. Robertson.
W. Tait Kinnear.
Robert Thomson, LL.B.
George Bird.
Robert Stewart, S.S.C.
Dr L. Dobbin.

giwbitors. — Alexander Matheson, M.A., W.S. ; J. A. Brodie.
^onorarg Strrcfnrn anb (TrrusmTr. — Andrew Moffat.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 1882-83.

Oriijinal Members marked thus''*.

Brown, Robert, Ph.D., F.L.S., London.

Edward, Thomas, Banff.

Grieve, David, F.R.S.E., 1 Lockharton Gardens, Slateford.

Peach, Chas. W., A.L.S., 80 Haddington Place.

VI

L ist of Members, 1882-83.

#rbittarjT P^mbtrs

Aitken, D. Percy, 5 Grosvenor Ores.
Aitken, John E. , 39 Barony Street.
Alexander, Miss Maggie, 25 Gillespie

Crescent.
AUardice, C. B., 5 Polwarth Ores.
Anderson, Miss A. J. R., 3 Howard

Place.
Anderson, Miss S. A., 3 Howard

Place.
Annandale, David, 5 George Square.
Banks, Wm., Janefield, Colinton.
Bird, George, 15 Thirlstane Road,

West.
Bogie, James, 5 Spence Street.
Bonnar, Wm., 14 South Castle St.
Brodie, J. A., Tweed Villa, Bon-

nington.
Brotherston, G. M., 18 St John

Street.
Brown, George L., Millburn House,

Morningside.
Brown, Miss J. M., Bellsmill House.
Brown, Miss L. G., Bellsmill House.
Bryden, Mrs, 72 Great King Street.
Bryden, Miss, 72 Great King Street.
Carmichael, Alex., Royal Circus.
Carmichael, Mrs Alex., Royal Circus.
Chisholm, Geo. G., M.A., B.Sc, 9
Rillbank Terrace.
•*Colvin, Rev. R. F., 7 Church Hill.
Cotton, Miss Maria, 26 Mayfield

Teri'ace.
Cowan, Charles Wm., Valleyfield,

Penicuik.
Craig, Archibald, jun., 16 Blacket

Place.
Craig, Mrs J. B., 18 Queen's Cres.
Craigie, Miss, 13 Polwarth Gardens.
Crawford, Wm. C, M.A., 1 Lock-

harton Gardens, Slateford.
Cunningham, Miss, 2 Haddington

Place.
Cunningham, Wm., 2 Haddington

Place.
Dawson, John D., M.A., 5 Bellevue

Street.
Dobbin, Leonard, Ph.D., F.R.S.E.,

4 Oxford Street.
Dobie, Miss Jessie, 7 Sciennes Hill.
Drummond, A. P., M.B., CM., SO

Broughton Place.
Duncan, Esdaile, Dean Public School.

Eddington, Alexander, 9 Montrose

Terrace.
Edmunds, Arthur, 9 Fettes Row.
Edmunds, Edmund, 9 Fettes Row.
Ewart, James, 1 Dundas Street.
Forbes, Miss, Langside, Glasgow.
Eraser, Charles, 13 Greenhill Place.
Eraser, Mrs, 13 Greenhill Place.
Eraser, Miss Minnie, 1 Marchmont

Road.
*Fraser, P. Neill, Rockville, Murray-
field.
Frazer, Alex., M.A., 7 Lothian St.
Galloway, James, St Fillans, Trinity.
Gibb, Philip B., M.A., 14 Picardy

Place.
Gibson, R. J. Harvey, M.A., 14

Lauriston Gardens.
Gloag, David, 1 Royston Terrace.
Gouthwaite, Miss, 55 Albany Street,
Gray, Arch., Bank Street.
Gray, Joseph T., M.A., 21 Tantallon

Place.
Grieve, Miss Amelia, Salisbury View,

Dalkeith Road.
Grieve, Symington, 7 Queensberry

Terrace.
Groom, Miss, Do-woiie Terrace, Cor-

storphine.
Groves, Charles H., M.D., Forthland

House, Trinity.
Hardie, William, Belleville, Dalkeith

Road.
Harrow, John, jun., Bonnington

Grove.
Hay, Alex. , Restalrig Road.
Heggie, John, 149 Warrender Park

Road.
Henderson, Miss, 6 Carlton Terrace.
Herbert, A. B. , 19 Strathearn Road.
Hogg, Andrew, 33 George Street.
Hutchison, Mrs, 34Manor Place.
Hutchison, Robert, F.R.S.E., 29

Chester Street.
Jenner, Charles, F.R.S.E., Easter
I Duddingston Lodge.

Kinnear, W. Tait, Leven, Fife.
Kynoch, Miss, 2 Darnaway Street.
j Laughton, William, Auchmill, Aber-
j deen.

j Law, Mrs John, 41 Heriot Row.
' Leishman, D., Schoolhouse, Currie.

List of Members, 1882-83.

Vll

Leishman, Miss, Schoolhouse, Ciiri'ie.

Ligertwood, George C. , M. A. , 9 Spot-
tiswoode Street.

Lindsay, John, 20 Balmoral Place.

Livingstone, Matthew, 108 Gilmore
Place.

Logan, Alex. W. , Bank of Scotland,
Criefl:

Lorimer, Miss, 16 Mayfield Ten-ace.

Lundie, William, 5 George Square.

Macadam, Stevenson, jun., 11 East
Brighton Crescent, Portobello.

Macadam, W. Ivison, F. C. S. , F. I. C. , 6
East Brighton Crescent, PortobeUo.

M'Donald, W., M.A., Pennyland,
Thurso.

M'Farlane, James, 12 Lonsdale Ter.

M'Intosh, James, 42 Queen Street.

M'Intosli, Mrs James, 42 Queen St.

Mackay, Miss, 69 Northumberland
Street.

M'Kean, James, 11 Sylvan Place.

Marshall, John Arch., 41 Minto St.

Marshall, Robert, Lasswade.

Matheson, Alex., M.A., W.S., 81a
Princes Street.

Melvin, Alex. , 24 Castle Street.

Miller, Peter, 8 Bellevue Terrace.

Miller, R. K., 4 Bonnington Ter.

Milne, John, 27 Dundas Street.

Milne, John K, , Kevock Tower, Lass-
wade.

Milne, Mrs, Kevock Tower, Lass-
wade.

Mitchell, John L., 6 Mansfield Place.

Moffat, Andrew, 2 King's Place,
Leith Walk.

Monteith, James, 20 Ciunberland
Street.

Morgan, Rev. David M., M.A., Par-
tick.

Morham, Robert, 2 Bright Crescent.

Ogilvie, Miss, IS Buckingham Ter.

Oliver, John S., 12 Greenhill Park.

Philip, James, 5 Argyle Place.

Pillans,Hugh H., 12 Dry den Place.

Pillans, Miss, 12 Dry den Place.

Pottage, John C, 117 Prmces St.

Potts, George H., Fettes Mount,
Lasswade.

Purves, A. P., W.S., 102 George St.

Richardson, A. D., Royal Botanic
Garden.

Robertson, C. F. , 54 Blacket Place.
Robertson, Peter, 5 Teviot Place.
Robertson, Rev. J. M., 60 Blacket

Place.
Shaw, JohnO. , Beauly, Victoria Park,

Trinity.
Simpson, Jas. , Anatomical Museum,

Park Place.
*Skirving, R. Scott, 29 Drmnmond

Place.
Smith, Alexander W., 4 West Castle

Road.
Smith, Miss B. H., 11 Pilrig Street.
Smith, Robert, 3 Bernard Terrace.
Sprague, T. B., M.A., F.R.S.E., 29

Buckingham Terrace.
Steele, Adam, 10 Comely Bank.
Steele, Miss, 16 Upper Gray Street.
Stewart, James R., 10 Salisbury Rd.
Stewart, Mrs James R., 10 SalLsburj'

Road.
Stewart, Miss, 53 Lothian Street.
Stewart, Robert, S.S.C, 8 Atholl

Place.
Sutherland, John, 4 Hay Street.
Suttar, John, Dispensary, Royal

Lifirmary.
Taylor, Andrew, 37 South Clerk St.
Taylor, William, M.D., 12 Melville

Street.
Terras, James, 6 Shandwick Place.
Thomson, A. B. , 7 London Street.
Thomson, Miss H. B., 98 Lauriston

Place.
Thomson, Robert, LL.B., 6 Shand-
wick Place.
Turner, Daniel, 24 George Street.
Usher, Andi-ew, Blackford House.
Walcot, John, 50 Northumberland

Street.
Walcot, Miss, 50 Northumberland

Street.
Walker, David, 14 Claremont Ter.
Walker, Wm. F., 5 Restalrig Ter.
Wardlaw, Adam, Eskgrove, Lass-
wade.
White, John, 34 Manor Place.
Wilson, Miss Helen, 7 Coat^ Place.
Wilson, James T., Restalrig House.
Wilson, Miss Katie, 2 Archibald PI.
Wood, T. A. D., Viewforth, Brun-

stane Road, Joppa.
Yule, Robert, 6 Mansfield Place.

viii List of Members, \Z'i2-Zi.

dorrtsponiring gl^mbus.

Archibald, Stewart, Kilmalcolm.
Brotherston, Andrew, Kelso.
Cruickshank, T. M., South Ronaldshay.
HoBKiRK, Charles P., Huddersfield.
HossACK, B. H., Craigie Field, Kirkwall.

OFFICE-BEARERS, 1883-84.

^rcsibcnt. — A. B. Herbert.
!lRia-|lwsibjnt.— P. B. Gibb, M.A.

(Council

T. B. Sprague, M.A., F.R.S.E.
John Heggie.
Chas. F. Robertson,
W. Tait Kinnear.
Robert Thomson, LL.B.
George Bird.

Robert Stewart, S.S.C.
Dr L. Dobbin.
John Walcot.
Symington Grieve.
Geo. L. Brown.
Chas. Fraser.

^oiiovarg Stcrctarn anb erc;isiu"tr. — Andrew Moffat.
gtubitors. — Alexander Matheson, M.A., W.S. ; J. A. Brodie.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 1883-84.
Original Members marked thus^\

fionnrarg Pcmb«rs.

Brown, Robert, Ph.D., F.L.S., London.

Edward, Thomas, Banff.

Grieve, David, F.R.S.E., 1 Lockharton Gardens, Slateford.

Peach, Chas. W., A.L.S., 30 Haddington Place.

C0rr£sponbing Ulcmbcrs.

Archibald, Stewart, Kilmalcolm.
Brotherston, Andrew, Kelso.
Cruickshank, T. M., Sonth Ronaldshay.
HoBKiRK, Charles P., Huddersfield.
HossACK, B. H., Craigie Field, Kirkwall.

X

List of Members, 1 88 3-84,

©rbhtarg

IITcmlrii's.

Adams, William, 15 Hope Park Ter.
Aitken, D. Percy, 5 Grosvenor Ores.
Aldis, Harry G., 71 South Clerk St.
Alexander, Miss Maggie, 25 Gillespie

Crescent.
Alexander, Robert, 4 Abbey Street.
Allan, John, 15 Rosefield Avenue,

Portobello.
AUardice, C. B., 5 Polwarth Cres.
Amoore, J. S., 7 Abercromby Place.
Anderson, Miss A. J. E,., 3 Howard

Place.
Anderson, Miss S, A., 3 Howard

Place.
Annandale, Da\'id, 5 George Square.
Banks, Wm., Janefield, Colinton.
Bashford, W. T., Argyle House,

Portobello.
Beale, Geo., Dean Public School.
Bird, George, 63 Haymarket Terrace.
Bogie, James, 5 Marchhall Crescent.
Bonnar, Wm., 54 Castle Street.
Brodie, J. A., Tweed Villa, Bon-

nington.
Brotherston, G. M., IS St John

Street.
Brown, George L., Millbnrn House,

Morningside.
Bro'ttTi, Miss L. G., Bellsmill House.
Bryden, Mrs, 72 Great King Street.
Bryden, Miss, 72 Great King Street.
Carr, T. F. Robertson, Berwick-on-

Tweed.
*Colviii, Rev. R. F., Teviothead, Jed-
burgh.
Cotton, Miss Maria, 26 Mayfield

Terrace.
Cowan, Charles Wm., Yalleyfield,

Penicuik.
Coyne, R. A. F. A., 21 Archibald PI.
> Craig, Archibald, jun., 16 Blacket

Place.
Craig, Mrs J. B., IS Queen's Cres.
Crawford, Wm. C, M.A., 1 Lock-

harton Gardens, Slateford.
Cunningham, Miss, 2 Haddington

Place.
Cunningham, William, 6 Inverleith

Gardens.
Cunningham, Mrs Wm., 6 Inverleith

Gardens.

Dawson, John D., M.A., 5 Bellevue

Street.
Dickson, Professor Alexander, M. D. ,

F.R.S.E., F.L.S., 11 Royal Circus.
Dobbin, Leonard, Ph.D., F.R.S.E.,

4 Oxford Street.
Dobie, Miss Jessie, 7 Scieunes Hill.
Donaldson, James, 9 Claremont Ter.
Drummond, A. P., M.B., CM., 30

Broughton Place.
Duncan, Esdaile, Dean Public School.
Eddington, Alexander, 9 Montrose

Terrace.
Edmuiids, Arthur, 9 Fettes Row.
Edmunds, Edmund, 9 Fettes Row.
Eld, Thos. W., 2 Ramsay Gardens.
Ewart, James, 1 Dundas Street.
Farquharson, Thos. Ker, Roseville,

St Catherme's Place, Grange.
Ferguson, John, 15 Bi'ighton Place,

Portobello.
Forbes, Miss, Langside, Glasgow.
Forgan, William, 3 Warriston Cres.
Foulis, James, M.D., 34 Heriot Row.
Eraser, Charles, 13 Greenhill Place.
Fraser, Mrs, 13 Greenhill Place.
Eraser, Hugh, Leith Walk Nurseries.
Fraser, Miss Minnie, 1 Marchmont

Road.
*Fraser, P. Neill, Rockville, MuxTay-

field.
Frazer, Alex., M.A., 7 Lothian St.
Galloway, James, St Fillans, Trinity.
Geddes, Patrick, F.R.S.E., 81a

Princes Street.
Gibb, Philip B., M.A., 14 Picardy

Place.
Gloag, David, 1 Royston Terrace.
Gouthwaite, Miss, 13 Woodburn

Terrace.
Gray, Arch., Bank Street.
Gray, Jos. T., M.A., 21 TantallonPl.
Grieve, Miss Amelia, Salisbury View,

Dalkeith Road.
Grieve, Somerville, Salisbury View,

Dalkeith Road.
Grieve, Symington, 7 Queensberry

Terrace.
Grinsell, Miss, 13 Royal Crescent.
Groom, Miss, Downie Terrace, Cor-

storphine.

List of Members, 1883-84.

XI

Groves, Charles H., M.D., Forthland

House, Trinity.
Hall, George, 4 Marchhall Road.
Hall, Miss, 4 Portgower Place.
Hardie, William, Belleville, Dalkeith

Road.
Hately, W., 12 Bruntstield Place.
Heggie, John, 2 Watt Terrace.
Henderson, John, Phrenological

Museum, Chambers Street.
Henderson, Miss, 6 Carlton Terrace.
Herbert, A. B., 13 Polwarth Terrace.
Hogg, Andrew, 94 George Street.
Honeyman, Robert, 94 West Bow.
Hume, Elliot, 8 Lauriston Lane.
Hume, William, 1 Lothian Street.
Hunter, James, Minto House.
Hutchison, Mrs, 22 Manor Place.
Hutchison, Robert, F.R.S.E., 29

Chester Street.
Jeffers, S., 18 Duncan Street.
Jenner, Charles, F.R.S.E., Easter

Duddingston Lodge.
King, Mark, 120 Pitt Street, Leith.
Kinnear, W. Tait, 5 Crichton Street.
Knight, Donald, Museum of Science

and Art.
Kynoch, Miss, 2 Darnaway Street.
Laughton, William, Auchmill, Aber-
deen.
Law, Mrs John, 41 Heriot Row.
Ligertwood, George C, M.A., 9 Spot-

tiswoode Street.
Lindsay, John, 24 Dryden Street.
Lindsay, Thomas, 5 East Hermitage

Place, Leith.
Livingstone, Matthew, 108 Gilmore

Place.
Logan, Alex. W., Bank of Scotland,

Crieff.
Lorimer, Miss, 16 Mayfield Terrace.
Lundie, William, 5 George Square.
MacAdam, Stevenson, jun., 11 East

Brighton Crescent, Portobello.
MacAdam, W. Ivison, F.C.S., F.LC,

6 East Brighton Crescent, Porto-
bello.
MacAlpine, A. N., B.Sc, 10 Spring

Gardens.
MacAlpine, Mrs A. N., 10 Spring

Gardens.
M'Donald, W., M.A., Pennyland,

Thurso.
Macfarlane, J. M., D.Sc, 3 Bellevue

Terrace.
M'Glashen, Robert L., 1 Brandon St.

M'Litosh, James, 42 Queen Street.
M'Litosh, Mrs James, 42 Queen St.
Mackay, Miss, 69 Northumberland

Street.
M'Kean, James, 11 Sylvan Place.
Marshall, John Arch., 41 Minto St.
Marshall, Robert, Lasswade.
Matheson, Alex., M.A., W.S., 137

Princes Street.
Melvin, Alex., 23 Marchmont Cres.
Miller, Rev. Robert, M.A., 15 Thirl-

stane Road, East.
Miller, R. K., 4 Bonnington Ter.
Miller, Peter, S Bellevue Terrace.
Milne, John, 27 Dundas Street.
Milne, John K. , Kevock Tower, Lass-
wade.
Milne, Mrs, Kevock Tower, Lass-
wade.
Mitchell, John L. , 106 Princes Street.
Moffat, Andrew, 2 King's Place,

Leith Walk.
Monteith, James, 20 Cumberland

Street.
Morham, Robert, 2 Bright Crescent.
Murray, A., 41 Lothian Street.
Murray, J. D., 68 Haymarket Ter.
Nesbit, John, 162 High Street,

Portobello.
Nisbet, Miss, 21 York Place.
Ogilvie, Miss, 18 Buckingham Ter.
Oliver, Geo. W., Royal Botanic

Garden.
Oliver, John S., 12 Greenhill Park.
Peacock, Thomas R., Abbotsford

Cottage, 5 Dalkeith Street, Joppa.
Philip, James, 5 Ai'gyle Place.
Pillans, Hugh H. , 12 Dryden Place.
Pillans, Miss, 12 Dryden Place.
Pottage, John C, 117 Princes St.
Potts, George H., Fettes Mount,

Lasswade.
Purves, A. P., W.S., 102 George St.
Purves, Samuel, 70 Haymarket Ter.
Ranken, William, 11 Spence Street.
Rattray, John, M.A., B.Sc, Marine

Station, Granton.
Richardson, A. D., Royal Botanic

Garden.
Robertson, C. F. , 54 Blacket Place.
Robertson, George, Lothian Road

Public School.
Rol)ertson, Rev. J. M., 60 Blacket

Place.
Russell, John, 6 Thirlstane Rd., East.
Scott, Miss, 50 Lauder Road,

Xll

List of Members, 1883-84.

Shaw, John 0. , Beauly, Victoria Park,

Triiaity.
Simpson, Jas., Anatomical Museum,

Park Place.
*Sku-viiig, E,. Scot, 29 Drummond

Place.
Smith, Alexander W., 4 West Castle

Road.
Smith, James, 2 Caledonian Place.
Smith, Miss, 34 Dublin Street.
Smith, Miss B. H., 11 Pih-ig Street.
Smith, Mrs Geo., 25 East Claremont

Street.
Sprague, T. B., M.A., F.R.S.E., 29

Buckingham Terrace.
Sprague, Mrs T. B., 29 Buckingham

Terrace.
Steele, Adam, 10 Comely Bank.
Steele, Miss, 16 Upper Gray Street.
Stewart, James R., 10 Salisbury Rd.
Stewart, Mi's James R., 10 Salisbury

Road.
Stewart, Miss, 53 Lothian Street.
Stewart, Robert, S.S.C, 8 AthoU

Place.
Sutherland, John, 4 Caledonian Rd.
Suttar, John, Dispensary, Royal

Infirmary.
Taylor, Charles, Pinkhill Nurseries.

Taylor, William, M.D., 12 Melville

Street.
Terras, James, 34 Findhorn Place.
Thomson, Rev. A. B. , Geneva.
Thomson, Miss H. B., 98 Lauriston

Place.
Thomson, Robert, LL.B., 6 Shand-

wick Place.
TurnbuU, J. M., 19 So. St David St.
Turner, Daniel, 24 George Street.
Usher, Andrew, Blackford House.
Walcot, John, 50 Northumberland

Street.
Walcot, Miss, 50 Northumberland

Street.
Walker, David, 2 Belle vue Terrace.
Walker, Wm. P., 5 Restalrig Ter.
Wardlaw, Geo., 14 St John's Hill.
Watt, Adam, 13 St John Street.
White, John, 22 Manor Place.
Wilson, Miss Helen, 7 Coates Place.
Wilson, James T., RestaMg House.
Wilson, Miss Katie, 2 Archibald PI.
Wood, Alex., 13 St Andrew Street.
Wood, T. A. D., Viewforth, Brun-

stane Road, Joppa.
Wright, J. C, 20 Royal Crescent.
Yule, Robert, 6 Mansfield Place.
Ziegler, John, 47 George Square.

OFFICE-BEARERS, 1884-85.

A. B. Herbert.

Dit£-||r£sib£itts.

p. B. GiBB, M.A. I T. B. Spragtte, M.A., F.R.S.E.

J. M. Macfarlane, D.Sc.

Council.

Robert Thomson.
George Bird.
Robert Stewart.
Dr L. Dobbin.
John Walcot.
Symington Grieve.

George L. Brown.

Charles Fraser.

John Rattray, M.A., B.Sc.

Archd. Craig, Jun.

W. IvisoN MacAdam, F.C.S., F.I.C.

Alexander Frazer, M.A.

|jonorariT ^ccrttarg nnb ^xtixBxxxtx.
Andrew Moffat.

^ubitors.
Alexander Matheson, M.A., W.S. ; J. A. Brodie.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 1884-85,
Original Members marked thus *.

fioitorarg Pcmbtrs.

Brown, Robert, Ph.D., F.L.S., London.

Edward, Thomas, Banff.

Grieve, David, F.R.S.E., 1 Lockharton Gardens, Slateford.

Peach, Chas. W., A.L.S., 30 Haddington Place.

€jorrx:spoHbiitg ^Htmbxirs.

Archibald, Stewart, Carrocli, Kirriemuir.
Brotherston, Andrew, Kelso.
Cruickshank, T. M., South Ronaldshay.
HoBKiRK, Charles P., Huddersfield.
Hossack, B. H., Craigie Field, Kirkwall.

XIV

List of Members, 1884-85.

Adams, William, Eoyal Bank, St

Andrew Square.
Aitken, D. Percy, 5 Grosvenor Ores.
Aldis, Harry G., 29 Collins Place.
Alexander, Miss Maggie, 25 Gillespie

Crescent.
Alexander, Robert, 4 Abbey Street.
Allan, John, 15 Rosetield Avenue,

Portobello.
Amoore, J. S., 7 Abercromby Place.
Anderson, G. R., 12 Argyle Crescent,

Portobello.
Archibald, Jas., 13 Clifton Terrace.
10 Arthur, Charles, Royal Infirmary.
Ashburner, Major, 7 George Street.
Bashford, W. T., Argyle House,

Portobello.
Bathgate, John, 8 Wardie Avenue.
Beale, George, Dean Public School.
Bird, George, 63 Haymarket Terrace.
Black, William, S.S.C, 3 Hill St.
Bobrinsky, Count Alexis, Cramond

House.
Bogie, James, 5 Marclihall Crescent.
Bonnar, Wm., 54 Castle Street.
20 Briglman, Francis, 1 Livingstone PI.
Brodie, J. A., Tweed Villa, Bon-

nington.
Brotherston, G. M., 18 St John

Street.
Brown, George L., Millburn House,

Morningside.
Brown, J. K. , 5 Saxe-Cobourg PL
Brown, Miss L. G., Bellsmill House.
Bryden, Mrs, 72 Great King Street.
Bryden, Miss, 72 Great King Street.
Cadell, Miss, 22 Gillespie Crescent.
Carr, T. F. Robertson, Berwick-on-
Tweed.
30 Clapperton, Mrs Wm., 9 Strathearu
Road.
*Colvin, Rev. R. F., Teviothead, Jed-
burgh.
Cotton, Miss Maria, 26 Mayfield

Terrace.
Cowan, Charles Wm., Valleyfield,

Penicuik.
Coyne, R. A. F. A., 21 Archibald PI.
Craig, Archibald, jun., 16 Blacket

Place.
Craig, Mrs J. B., 18 Queen's Cres.

Pltmbcrs.

Crawford, Wm. C, M.A., 1 Lock-

harton Gardens, Slateford.
Cunningham, Miss, 5 Duncan Street.
Cunningham, William, 6 Inverleith

Gardens.
40 Cunningham, Mrs Wm.,'6 Inverleith

Gardens.
Dawson, John D., M.A., 5 Bellevue

Street.
Dickson, Professor Alexander, M. D. ,

F.R.S.E., F.L.S., 11 Royal Circus.
Dobbin, Leonard, Ph.D., F.R.S.E.,

4 Oxford Street.
Dobie, Miss Jessie, 83 Mayfield Road.
Donaldson, James, M.B., CM., Loch-

maben.
Dowell, !Mrs, 13 Palmerston Place.
Dow ell. Miss, 13 Palmerston Place.
Duncan, Esdaile, Dean Public School.
Edmunds, Arthur, 9 Fettes Row.
50 Edmunds, Edmund, 9 Fettes Row.
Eld, Thos. W., 2 Ramsay Gardens.
Ewart, James, 1 Dundas Street.
Farquharson, Miss, Roseville, St

Catherine's Place, Grange.
Farquharson, Thos. Ker, Roseville,

St Catherine's Place, Grange.
Ferguson, John, 15 Brighton Place,

Portobello.
Forbes, Miss, Langside, Glasgow.
Forgan, William, 3 Warriston Cres.
Foulis, James, M.D., 34 Heriot Row.
Eraser, Charles, 13 Greenhill Place.
60 Eraser, Hugh, Leith Walk Nurseries.
Fraser, Mrs, 13 Greenhill Place.
Eraser, Miss Minnie, 1 Marchmont

Road.
*Fraser, P. JSTeill, Rockville, Murray-
field.
Frazer, Alex., M.A., 7 Lothian St.
Galloway, James, St Fillans, Trinity.
Gay, David, 2 Windsor Street.
Gibb, Philip B., M.A., 14 Picardy

Place.
Gilchrist, James, 17 Manor Place.
Gloag, David, 1 Royston Terrace.
70 Gouthwaite, Miss, 13 Woodburn

Terrace.
Gray, Arch., Bank of Scotland Ho.,

Bank Street.
Gray, Jos. T., M.A., Parkside.

List of Meiubers, 1884-85.

XV

Gray, Mrs Robert, Bank of Scotland

House, Bank Street.
Grieve, Miss Amelia, Salisbury View,

Dalkeith Road.
Grieve, >Somerville, Salisbury View,

Dalkeith Road.
Grieve, Symington, 7 Queensberry

Terrace.
Groom, Miss, Downie Terrace, Cor-

storphine.
Grosert, Robert, 23 Marchmont Ores.
Groves, Charles H. , M.D., 36 Inver-

leith Row.
80 Hall, George, 4 Marchhall Road.
Hall, Miss, 4 Portgower Place.
Hardie, William, 1 Fingal Place.
Hately, W., 12 Bruntstiekl Place.
Hay, Miss, 1 Aixlmillan Terrace.
Hay, Miss Maggie, 1 Ardmillan

Terrace.
Heggie, John, 2 ^Yatt Terrace.
Henderson, John, • Phrenological

Museum, Chambers Street.
Henderson, John R., M.B., CM.,

Scottish Marine Station, Granton.
Henderson, Miss, 6 Carlton Teirace.
90 Heiary, C. F., 1 Brandon Terrace.
Herbert, A. B. , 1 3 Polwarth Terrace.
Hogg, Andrew, 94 Geoi'ge Street.
Hume, Elliot, 8 Lauriston Lane.
Hume, William, 1 Lothian Street.
Hunter, James, Minto House.
Hurry, Miss, 56 I^idia Street.
Hurry, R., 56 India Sti-eet.
Hutchison, Mrs, 22 Manor Place.
Hutchison, Robert, F.R.S.E., 29

Chester Street.
100 Jeffers, S., 18 Duncan Street.

Jenner, Charles, F.R.S.E. , Easter

Duddingston Lodije.
Kennedy, Adam, 63 Haymarket Ter.
Key, Rev. D. Ritchie, M.A., 31

Gayfield Square.
King, J. Falconer', Minto House.
King, Mark, 120 Pitt Street, Leith.
Knight, Donald, Museum of Science

and Art.
Kynoch, Miss, 2 Darnaway Street.
Laing, Jas. H. W., M.A., B.Sc, 59

Forrest Road.
Laughton, William, Auchmill, Aber-
deen.
110 Law, Mrs John, 4 1 Heriot Row.

Ligertwood, George C, M.A., 9 Spot-

tiswoode Street.
Lindsay, John, 24 Dryden Street.

Lindsay, Thomas, 5 East Hermitage

Place, Leith.
Livingstone, Matthew, 108 Gilmore

Place.
Lorimer, Miss, 16 Mayfield Terrace.
Mac Adam, W^. Ivison, F.C.S., F.LC,

6 East Brighton Crescent, Porto-

bello.
MacAlpine, A. N., B.Sc, 10 Spring

Gardens.
MacAlpine, Mrs A. N., 10 Spring

Gardens.
Macfarlane, J. M., D.Sc, 3 Bellevuc

Terrace.
120 M'Glashen, Robert L., 1 Brandon St.
M'Gregor, Miss, 4 Marmion Terrace.
M'Gregor, Miss Maggie, 4 Marmion

Terrace.
M'Intosh, James, 42 Queen Street.
M'Litosh, Mrs James, 42 Queen St.
Mackay, Miss, 69 Northumberland

Street.
M'Kean, James, 3 Warrender Park

Terrace.
M'Kean, Miss Minnie, 2 Inverleith

Terrace.
Marshall, John Arch., 41 Minto St.
Marshall, Ralph, 1 Lome Terrace.
130 Matheson, Alex., M.A., W.S., 137

Princes Street.
Melvin, Alex., 40 Wai-render Park

Road.
Miller, Rev. Robert, M.A., 15 Thirl-

stane Road, East.
Miller, R. K., 13 Lennox Street.
Miller, Peter, 8 Bellevue Terrace.
Milne, John K. , Kevock Tower, Lass-
wade.
Milne, Mrs, Kevock Tower, Lass-
wade.
Mitchell, John L., 106 Princes Street.
Moffat, Andrew, 28 Lutton Place.
Monteith, James, 20 Cumberland

Street.
140 Morham, Robert, 2 Bright Crescent.
Murray, Chas. G., 68 Haymarket

Terrace.
Murray, J. D., 68 Haymarket Ter.
Murray, W^m., 8 Clifton Terrace.
Nesbit, John, 162 High Street,

Portobello.
Nisbet, Miss, 21 York Place.
Ogilvie, Miss, 18 Buckingham Ter.
Oliver, John S., 12 Greenhill Park.
Peacock, Alex., 9 M'Laren Road.
Peacock, Miss, 9 M'Laren Road.

XVI

L ist of Mem bers, 1884-8;

150 Peacock, Thomas R., 9 M'Laren Rd.

Philip, James, 5 Argyle Place.
Pillans, Hugh H., 12 Dry den Place.
Pillans, Miss, 12 Dryden Place.
Potts, George H., Fettes Mount,

Lasswade.
Purves, Samuel, 70 Haymarket Ter.
Ranken, William, 11 Spence Street.
Rattray, John, M.A., B.Sc, Marine

Station, Granton.
Raid, Andrew, Lixmount Terrace,

Trinity.
Richardson, A. D., Roj^al Botanic

Garden.
160 Robertson, C. F., 54 Blacket Place.
Robertson, George, Lothian Road

Public School.
Robertson, Rev. J. M., Stirling.
Russell, John, 6 Thirlstane Rd., East.
Sewell, Philip, Royal Botanic Garden.
Shaw, John 0. , Beauly, Victoria Park,

Trinity.
Simpson, Jas., Anatomical Museum,

Park Place.
Skinner, Jas., 21 West Maitland St.
*Skirving, R. Scot, 29 Drummond

Place.
Smith, Alexander W., 4 West Castle

Road.
170 Smith, Miss, 34 Dublin Street.

Smith, Mrs Geo., 25 East Claremont

Street.
Smith, R. C, 26 Pitt Street.
Sprague, T. B., M.A., F.R.S.E., 29

Buckingham Terrace.
Sprague, Mrs T. B., 29 Buckingham

Terrace.
Stalkartt, Mrs, 14 Melville Terrace.
Steele, Adam, 10 Comely Bank.
Steele, Miss, 16 Upper Gray Street.
Stevenson, William C, Leadervale,

Trinity Road.
Stewart, James, 8 Morningside Ter.

180 Stewart, James R., 10 Salisbury Rd.
Stewart, Miss, 53 Lothian Street.
Stewart, Robert, S.S.C, 21 AVarris-

ton Crescent.
Stewart, Mrs Robert, 21 Warriston

Crescent.
Storrie, James, 5 Bowhill Terrace. '
Sutherland, John, 4 Caledonian Rd.
Suttar, John, DisiDcnsary, Royal

Infirmary.
Taylor, Charles, Pinkhill Nurseries.
Taylor, Wm., M.D., 12 Melville St.
Terras, James, 34 Findhorn Place,
190 Thomson, Rev. A. B., Geneva.

Thomson, Miss H. B., 98 Lauriston

Place.
Thomson, Robert, LL.B., 6 Shand-

wick Place.
Todd, Frederick, 29 Brougham St.
Turnbull, George, 16 Thistle Street.
Turnbull, J. M., 6 Rose Street.
Turner, Daniel, S.L., 24 George St.
Usher, Andrew, Blackford House.
Walcot, John, 50 Northumberland

Street.
Walker, David, 2 Bellevue Terrace.
200 Walker, Wm. F., 5 Restalrig Ter.
Wardlaw, Geo., 14 St John's Hill.
Yfhite, John, 22 Manor Place.
White, Miss, 1 Cumin Place.
White, P. J., 25 Castle Terrace.
Wilson, Miss Helen, 1 Lennox St.
Wilson, James T. , Restalrig House.
Wilson, Miss Katie, 2 Archibald PI.
Wood, Alex., 4 Avondale Place.
Wood, T. A. D., Viewforth, Brun-

stane Road, Joppa.
210 Wright, J. C, 20 Royal Crescent.
Wright, Thomas, 16 Broughton St.
Young, David E., 22 Rosehall Ter.
Yule, Robert, 6 Mansfield Place.
214 Ziegler, John, Sunnyside, Corstor-

phine.

LIST OF PAST PRESIDENTS.

Dr RoBT. Brown, 1869.

Mr R. Scot Skirving, 1869-1874.

Mr Wm. Gorrie j 1874-1877.
(deceased)

Rev. R. F. CoLviN, 1877-1879.
Mr John Walcot, 1879-1882.
Mr A. B. Herbert, 1882-1885.
Mr Symington Grieve, 1885.

OFFICE-BEARERS, 1885-86.

Symington Grieve.

il^it£-|,U£sib£nts.

T. B. Sprague, M.A., F.R.S.E.
J. M. Macfarlane, D.Sc, F.R.S.E. | A. Frazer, M.A.

/owntil.

John Walcot.
John Allan.
George L. Brown.
Charles Fraser.
John Rattray, M.A., B.Sc,
F.R.S.E.

Archd. Craig, Jun.
W. IvisoN MacAdam,
A. D. Richardson.
William Forgan.
William Bonnar.
John Henderson.

F.C.S., F.I.C.

A. B. Steele.

|oinl-(3lbitors of ' STransHctions.'
Andrew Moffat, John Lindsay.

^ojtorarg ^ccrttarg aitb iwasurtr.
Andrew Moffat.

^ttbitors.
John A. Marshall, C.A. ; Hugh H. Pillans.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 1885-86.

Original Members marked thus*.

Brown, Robert, Ph.D., F.L.S., London,

Grieve, David, F.R.S.E., 1 Lockharton Gardens, Slateford.

Henderson, Prof. John R., M.B., CM., The College, Madras.

Corr£Spo«bing ^Xembtrs.

Archibald, Stewart, Carroch, Kirriemuir.
Brotherston, Andrew, Kelso.
Crtjickshank, T. M., South Ronaldshay.
HoBKiRK, Charles P., Huddersfield.
HossACK, B. H., Craigie Field, Kirkwall.
Thomson, John, Stobo.

XVUl

List of Members, 1885-86.

©rbittarg Pembcrs.

Adams, William, Royal Bank, St

Andrew Square.
Aitken, D. Percy, 5 Grosvenor Cres.
Alexander, Miss Maggie, 25 Gillespie

Crescent.
Alexander, Robert, 4 Abbey Street.
Allan, John, 15 Rosefield Avenue,

Portobello.
Amoore, J. S., 7 Abercromby Place.
Anderson, G. R., 33 Howard Place.
Archibald, Jas., 13 Clifton Terrace.
Arthur, Charles, Royal Infirmary.
10 Ayton, Alex., 43 N. Bruntsfield PL
Bashford, W. T., Argyle House,

Portobello.
Bathgate, John, 8 Wardie Avenue.
Bird, George, 63 Haymarket Terrace.
Black, William, S.S.C, 3 Hill St.
Boa, Peter, 119 George Street.
Bonnar, Wm., 54 Castle Street.
Brodie, J. A., Bonnington Iron

Foundry, Leith.
Brotherston, G. M., 18 St John

Street.
Brown, George L., Millburn House,

Morningside.
20 Brown, J. K. , 5 Saxe-Cobourg PI.
Brown, R. Smith, 5 Marchmont Ter.
Brown, Thos., 6 Leamington Road.
Bryden, Mrs, 72 Great King Street.
Bryden, Miss, 72 Great King Street.
Cairns, Wm. M'Gregor, 16 South

Charlotte Street.
Carter, A. E. J., 9 Argyle Crescent,

Portobello.
Clapperton, Mrs Wm., 9 Strathearn

Road.
Clark, Alex., S.S.C, 44 Frederick

Street.
*Colvin, Rev. R. F., Teviothead, Jed-
burgh.
30 Cooper, James, 31 Howe Street.
Cotton, Miss Maria, 26 Mayfield

Terrace.
Cowan, Alfred, 19 Rutland Square.
Cowan, Charles Wm., Valleyfield,

Penicuik.
Coyne, R. A. F. A., 21 Archibald PI.
Craig, Archibald, jun., 16 Black et

Place.
Craig, Mrs J. B., 18 Queen's Cres.

Crawford, Wm. C, M.A., 1 Lock-

harton Gardens, Slateford.
Cunningham, Miss, 5 Duncan Street.
Cunningham, William, 6 Inverleith

Gardens.
40 Cunningham, Mrs Wm., 6 Inverleith

Gardens.
Dickson, Professor Alexander, M. D. ,

F.R.S.E., F.L.S., 11 Royal Circus.
Dobbin, Leonard, Ph.D., F.R.S.E.j

4 Cobden Road.
Dobie, Miss Jessie, 83 Mayfield Road,
Donaldson, James, M.B., CM., Loch-

maben.
Dowell, Mrs, 13 Palmerston Place.
Dowell, Miss, 13 Palmerston Place.
Duncan, Esdaile, Dean Public School.
Eld, Thos. W., 2 Ramsay Gardens.
Ewart, James, 1 Dundas Street.
50 Farquharson, Miss, Roseville, St

Catherine's Place, Grange.
Farquharson, Thos. Ker, Roseville,

St Catherine's Place, Grange.
Ferguson, John, 15 Brighton Place,

Portobello.
Forbes, Miss Mary, 5 Brunstane

Road, Joppa.
Forgan, William, 3 Warriston Cres.
Foulis, James, M.D., 34 Heriot Row.
Eraser, Charles, 13 Greenhill Place.
Fraser, Mrs, 13 Greenhill Place.
Eraser, Hugh, Leith Walk Nurseries.
Fraser, Miss Minnie, Brisbane, Aus-
tralia.
60*Fraser, P. Neill, Rockville, Murray-
field.
Frazer, Alex., M.A., 7 Lothian St.
Galloway, James, St Fillans, Trinity.
Gibb, Philip B., M.A., 14 Picardy

Place.
Gilchrist, James, 17 Manor Place.
Gloag, David, 9 Barnton Terrace.
Gordon, James, Royal Institution,

Mound.
Gray, Arch., Bank of Scotland Ho.,

Bank Sti-eet.
Gray, Jos. T., M.A., Parkside.
Gray, Mrs Robert, Bank of Scotland

House, Bank Street.
70 Grieve, Miss Amelia, Salisbury View,

Dalkeith Road.

List of Members, 1885-86.

XIX

Grieve, Somerville, Salisbury View,

Dalkeith Road.
Grieve, Symington, 157 Dalkeith Rd.
Grosert, Robert, 23 Marchmont Ores.
Groves, Charles H., M.D., 36 Inver-

leith Row.
Guthrie, Mrs, Almora, Liberton.
Hall, John T., 15 Gardner's Crescent.
Hall, Miss, 4 Portgower Place.
Hardie, William, Messrs Neill & Co.,

Printers.
Hately, W., 12 Bruntsiield Place.
80 Hay, Miss, 1 Ardmillan Terrace.
Hay, Miss Maggie, 1 Ardmillan Ter.
Heggie, John, 3 Dalkeith St. , Joji pa.
Henderson, John, Phrenological

Museum, Chambers Street.
Henderson, Miss, 6 Carlton Terrace.
Henderson, Mrs, 6 Carlton Terrace.
Henry, C. F., 1 Brandon Terrace.
Herbert, A. R, 13 Polwarth Terrace.
Hume, Elliot, 8 Lauriston Lane.
Hume, William, 1 Lothian Street.
90 Hunter, James, 7 Melgund Tei-race.
Hurry, Miss, 56 India Street.
Hurry, R., 56 India Street.
Hutchison, Mrs, 22 Manor Place.
Hutchison, Robert, F.R.S.E., 29

Chester Street.
Jamieson, H., Natural History La-
boratory, University.
Jeffers, S., 18 Dundonald Street.
Jenner, Charles, F.R.S.E., Easter

Duddingston Lodge.
Kennedy, Adam, 63 Haymarket Ter.
Key, Rev. D. Ritchie, M.A., 17

Elm Row.
100 Kilgour, Thos. W., 4 East Brighton

Crescent, Portobello.
King, J. Falconer, Minto House.
King, Mark, 120 Pitt Street, Leith.
Knight, Donald, Museum of Science

and Art.
Kynoch, Miss, 2 Darnaway Street.
Laing, Jas. H. W.,M.A., B.Sc, 105

Warrender Park Road.
Laughton, Wm., Auchmill, Aberdeen.
Law, Mrs John, 41 Heriot Row.
Leitch, Peter, 7 Lily Terrace.
Lennie, Joseph C, 25 Gayfield Sq.
110 Ligertwood, George C, M.A., 9 Spot-

tiswoode Street.
Lindsay, John, 43 James St., Pilrig.
Livingstone, Matthew, 108 Gilmore

Place.
Lorimer, Miss, 16 Mayfield Terrace.

Mac Adam, W. Ivison, F.C.S., F.LC,
6 East Brighton Crescent, Porto-
bello.

MacAlpine, A. N., B.Sc, 10 Spring
Gardens.

MacDougall, W., Woodburn, Mor-
ningside.

M'Ewen, P., 36 York Place.

Macfarlane, J. M., D.Sc, F.R.S.E.,
15 ^Scotland Street.

M'Gl'ashan, D. , 16 Polwarth Crescent.
120 M'Glashen, Robert L., 1 Brandon St.

M'Intosh, James, 42 Queen Street.

Mackay, Miss, 69 Northumberland
Street.

M'Kean, James, 3 Warrender Park
Terrace.

M'Kean, Miss J., 1 Inverleith Ter.

M'Kean, Miss Minnie, 1 Inverleith
Terrace.

M'Kechnie, Chas., 60 Northumber-
land Street.

Marshall, Hugh, B.Sc, 1 Lome Ter.

Marshall, John Arch., 41 Minto St.

Marshall, Ralph, 1 Lome Terrace.
130 Matheson, Alex., M.A., W.S., 137
Princes Street.

Melvin, Alex., 40 Warrender Park
Road.

Miller, Rev. Robert, M.A., 15 Thirl-
stane Road, East.

Miller, R. K., 13 Lennox Street.

Miller, Peter, 8 Bellevue Terrace.

Milne, John K. , Kevock Tower, Lass-
wade.

Milne, Mrs, Kevock Tower, Lass-
wade.

Mitchell, J. Lillie, 16 Craigmillar Pk.

Moffat, Andrew, 5 Scone Gardens.

Morham, Robert, 2 Bright Crescent.
140 Muir, John, 115 Warrender Park
Road.

Murray, Chas. G., 68 Haymarket Ter.

Murray, J. D., 68 Haymarket Ter.

Murray, Wm., 8 Clifton Terrace.

Neill, John, 8 Wemyss Place.

Nesbit, John, 162 High Street,
Portobello.

Nisbet, Miss, 21 York Place.

Ogilvie, Miss, 18 Buckingham Ter.

Oliver, John S., 12 Greenhill Park.

Paton, Henry, 15 Myrtle Terrace.
150 Patterson, J. C, 6 Mentone Terrace.

Peacock, Alex., 9 M'Laren Road.

Peacock, Miss, 9 M'Laren Road.

Peacock, Thomas R., 9 M'Laren Rd.

XX

L ist of Members, 1885-86.

Pearcey, F. G., 18 Parson's Green

Terrace.
Penman, Wm., 8 Lauriston Park.
Philip, James, 5 Argyle Place.
Pillans, Hugh H., 12 Dry den Place.
Pillans, Miss, 12 Dry den Place.
Potts, George H., Fettes Mount,

Lasswade.
160 Purves, Samuel, 70 Haymarket Ter,
Ranken, William, 11 Spence Street.
Rattray, John, M.A., B.Sc.,F.R.S.E.,

15 Scotland Street.
Reid, Andrew, 2 Lixmount Terrace,

Trinity.
Richardson, A. D., Royal Botanic

Garden.
Robertson, C. F., 54 Blacket Place,
Robertson, George, Lothian Road

Public School.
Sanderson, Dr Alfred, St Martin's

Lodge, Wardie Crescent.
Shaw, John 0. , Beauly, Victoria Park,

Trinity.
Skinner, Jas., 21 West Maitland St.
170*Skirving, R. Scot, 29 Drummond

Place.
Smith, Alexander W., 4 West Castle

Road.
Smith, Miss, 34 Dublin Street.
Smith, Mrs Geo., 25 East Claremont

Street.
Smith, R. C, 205 Morningside Road.
Somerville, Alex., B.Sc, F.L.S., 34

Granby Ter., Hillhead, Glasgow.
Sprague, T. B., M.A., F.R.S.E., 29

Buckingham Terrace.
Sprague, Mrs T. B., 29 Buckingham

Terrace.
Stalkartt, Mrs, 14 Melville Terrace,
Steele, Adam B., 10 Comely Bank.
180 Steele, Miss, 16 Upper Gray Street,
Stevenson, William C, Leadervale,

Trinity Road.
Stewart, James, 8 Morningside Ter.
Stewart, James R., 10 Salisbury Rd.
Stewart, Miss, 53 Lothian Street.
Stewart, Robert, S.S.C, 21 Warris-

ton Crescent.

Storrie, James, 5 Bowhill Terrace.
Sutherland, John, 4 Caledonian Rd.
Suttar, John, Dispensary, Royal

Infirmary.
Taylor, William, M.D., 12 Melville

Street.
190 Terras, James, 34 Findhom Place.
Thomson, Miss H, B., 98 Lauriston

Place.
Thomson, Mrs, 6a Bruntsfield Place.
Thomson, Robert, LL.B., 6 Shand-

wick Place.
Todd, Miss M. G., Bruntsfield Lodge.
Torrie, Robert, 198 Bonnington

Road, Leith.
Tumbull, George, 16 Thistle Street.
TurnbuU, J. M., 6 Rose Street.
Turner, Daniel, S.L,, 24 George St.
Usher, Andrew, Blackford House,
200 Walcot, John, 50 Northumberland

Street,
Walker, David, 2 Bellevue Terrace.
Walker, John B., 22 London Street.
Walker, Wm. F., 5 Restalrig Ter.
Wallace, William, 147 Constitution

Street, Leith,
Wardlaw, Geo., 14 St John's HiU.
Watson, Dr Wm., 49 Grange Road.
Watson, Mrs, 49 Grange Road.
White, Miss, 6 Roslin Terrace,

Joppa.
Wilson, George A., 46 Queensferry

Street.
210 Wilson, James T., Restalrig House
Wilson, Miss Helen, 1 Lennox St.
Wilson, Miss Katie, 2 Archibald PI,
Wood, Alex., 4 Avondale Place,
Wood, T, A, D,, Viewforth, Brun-

stane Road, Joppa.
Wright, Hilda, Ravenswood, Craig-

lockhart.
Wright, J, C, 7 Cluny Avenue.
Wright, Thomas, 16 Broughton St,
Young, David E., 22 Rosehall Ter.
Young, Mrs D. E., 22 Rosehall Ter,
Yule, Robert, 6 Mansfield Place.
221 Ziegler, John, Sunnyside, Corstor-

phine.

jJi'tfijtitnnttc mA fk\\ i^i '^nm^mmh

FOR THE

CONVERSAZIONE

AND

MICROSCOPIC SOIREE

OF THE

lEbinburGb IRaturaliete' jfielb Club.

siSs>w-

FREEMASONS' HALL GEORGE STREET.

FRIDAY, 17th APRIL 1885.

f-

OGRAMME OF BaND M.USIC.

©bcrture,

" The Wild Huntsman,"

Rudolf Mersy.

Selection,

. " Robert Bruce," .

. Bonnisseau.

5G5Eam,

" Marien,"

Gung'l.

Selection,

" Falka,"

. Chassaigne.

TOaltj,

*' Estudiantina," .

. Waldteufel.

Selection,

. "William Tell," •

Rossini.

TOalt^,

"Hypatia,"
"God Save the Queen."

M. Osterlere.

RUDOLF MERSY, Leader.

N.

II Zl 81 n gi 91 II 81 61 05

10 987654321

•00

I— (

•to

•o

^4"

• "*

00'

• CO

50

•CI

o*

■ 1-t

m

to.

o

• rH

5-

• cq

S-

•CO

■^

Oi'

•lO

ox*

• 50

• t^

00'

•00

1-1
to'

.05

I—"
(-■•

.O
r-H

pq
El

m
pa

P
Eh

V

01

6

8

I 9

S

•

8

Z

I

11

12

13

14 15

16

17

18

19

20

21

-t

->

■A W

O W

OO! O
S ^ OS

5 w fc-

a r; o

w ■<

o

CO

§ ^'

■40

o

•S p^

CO

§ o

i:^

^^

<u

,, '^

%

a. «s

C5

5. 03

8

e;

'J^^ .

1

S<-^

Scree
essrs

2

(^

s g

,'^

^ >^

^

gm

w;

s

s

o

s

o

•^

rCl

-5?

-«

>a

I

HI

t^

H O

pq

15

M

<>

O

H

^

n

o

PS

H

m

ol

>i

(4

P.

ij

^

IB

a

s.

PLAN OF EXHIBITION -HALL.

LIST OF EXHIBITS

AND THEIR ARRANGEMENT.

{The Microscopic preparations on Tables I. -IV. are lighted by electric lamps
provided by Mr J. Mitchell. )

TABLE I.— Preparations 1-10 illustrate Root -structure, aud Protoplasmic Move-
ments in Root Hairs, exhibited by Mr A. D. Richardson.
Preparations 11-21 illustrate the Gland-structure of Nepenthes and Cephalotus
—plants suited for catching and digesting flies — exhibited by Dr J. M. Mai-
farlane.

TABLE II. — Preparations 1-5 show various organs of the Spider, exhibited by Messrs

J. L. Murray and Purves.
Alongside preparation 1 are — Water- Spiders from Luffness Links, exhibited by

Mr Archibald Gray ; Spiders' Nests, exhibited by Mrs Olapperton and Mr

Purves.
Preparations 6, 7 show grouped Diatoms and arranged slide of Butterfly Scales,

exhibited by Mr Turnbull.
Preparations 8-10 illustrate Mouth -Organs of Insects, exhibited by Mr J.

Lindsay.
Preparations 11-20 form a series of Human Parasites, exhibited by Mr Alex.

Frazer, M.A.

TABLE m.— Preparations 1-5 are Marine Diatoms and other Algse, exhibited by

Mr J. Rattray, M.A., B.Sc.
Preparations 6-9 are the Teeth (Odontophore) of rare British Molluscs, exhibited

by Miss M. M'Kean.
Preparation 10 shows the appearance of a Coal-Miner's Lung who has been af-
fected with Anthracosis, exhibited by Mr Philip J. White.
Preparation 11, shown by Zeiss microscope, Mr J. Donaldson.
Preparation 12 is a section of Doleritic Rock, shown by polarised light, exliibited

by Mrs Clapperton.
Preparation 13 shows Circulation of the Protoplasm and green Clilorophyll

Granules in Cells of the Leaf of Anacharis, exhibited by Mrs Dowell.
Preparations 14-16 are objects seen under polarised light, exhibited by Messrs

Forgan, C. Eraser, and Hume.
Preparations 17, 18 are Zoophytes preserved in the expanded state, exhibited by

Dr Henderson.
Preparation 19 shows Moving-spores of a Water-weed (Pleurococcus), exhibited

by Councillor Walcot.
Preparation 20 is a section of Black-Pepper Stem, exhibited by Miss Cadell.

TABLE IT.— Preparation 1 is a Double-stained section of Stem, exhibited by Mr
J. Henderson.

Preparations 2 and 3 are Crystals viewed by polarised light, exhibited by
Messrs Wardlaw and John G. Patterson.

Preparation 4 shows Head-parts of the "Water-boatman" insect (Notonecta),
exhibited by Mrs Bryden.

Preparations 5 and 6 illustrate the Structure of the Fore and Hind Leg of the
Water- Beetle (Dyticus), exhibited by Messrs Bird and Sjonington Grieve.

Preparations 7 and 8 are Barbadoes Polycistinss and Moth Scales, shown by dark-
ground illumination, exhibited by Mr Heggie.

Preparations 9-12 show Traube's Cells, and forms of Vegetable-cell growth, ex-
hibited by Mr A. N. M'Alpine, B.Sc.

Preparations 13 and 14 are injected Animal Tissues, exhibited by Mr Hume.

Microscope 15 shows electrical decomposition of Water into its constituent ele-
ments, exhibited by Mr Mitchell.

Preparation 16 is a Foraminiferous Gathering, exhibited by Mr J. Allan.

TABLE v.— Exhibition of British Lepidoptera, by Mr H. G. Aldis ; and of East
Indian Lepidoptera, by Mr G. M. Brotherston.

TABLE VI. — Collection of Fossils from the Edinburgh Rocks, exhibited by Mr John

Henderson.
Fossils, exhibited by Mrs Clapperton.
Coloured Plates of two Great Auk Eggs, and Litho. Plate of Bones found in a

Shell-Mound at Oronsay, exhibited by Mr Symington Grieve.

TABLE VII. — Specimens illustrative of Scottish Ornithology, exhibited by Mr Bird.
Sterna of Birds and Ear-bones of Mammals, exhibited by Messrs D. Knight

and P. J. White.
West Indian Birds, exhibited by Mr J. H. Eld.
New Zealand Apteryx, exhibited by Mr J. Ferguson.
Australian Birds, and Blind Fish from Kentucky Caves, exhibited by Mr P. J.

White.
General Bird Collection, exhibited by Messrs Aitken and Fraser, and Mrs

Clapperton.

TABLE VIII. — Challenger Expedition Specimens, and Living Animals from the
Scottish Marine Station, exhibited by Dr John Murray.
Demonstration on Photo-Micrography, by Mr Forgan.
Exhibition of Electrical Apparatus, by Mr Mitchell,

TABLE IX. — Exhibition of Scientific Instruments and Microscopic Appliances, by
Messrs Alex. Frazer and Hiime.

There will be exhibits of Rare Plants from the Edinburgh neighbourhood by Mr
Archibald Gray and others.

In the Small Side-Hall Dr Foulis will exhibit on a screen the Circulation of Blood
in a Frog ; and Mr Falconer King will give a demonstration on Spectrum Analysis.

At 9.15 Messrs C. Fraser and Forgan will give a Lantern Demonstration of Micro-
scopic Specimens in the Large Side-Hall.

I

Neiv York Botanical Garden Librar

3 5185 00267 4800

j.j-o.;j'<!^!

^'^^r\f^

'^^9^.

■aa'^aA'

wQm

-r^'^^/v^^A^A;

iAOAA/^^

^(h'Al^v.

>Aa^

... ■ nAA^A?^m

MAoA/^/^

AAO a''

.aA.^A/,

AAA;;|^^f^5

Asf A.

.AaA'AaO

-^ ? A A\

^5:-A^^?.

^■^:A^A

A'^^^

!£.. '

A/^'" ■ -- a'^'^^A^ ' lA/

, '^'AA'AA.^.iX'A'j

ST

. . ' ^' -A Q /^ ^ A / A i